Borneo: appendix

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For Private Circulation only.

B O E N E O.

APPENDIX.

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(I.) Extract from Sketch of Borneo, by J. Hunt, Esquire, in 1812.

(II.) The Physical and Political Geography of the Districts lying between Gaya Bay and the Tarapassuk River; with a Geographical Sketch of Maludu Bay, and the North¬ east Coast of Borneo, by Spencer St. John, formerly H.B.M's. Consul-Genoral in the Island of Borneo. 1862.

P 1

(III.) The Character of the Chinese, attracted from " The Foreigner in Far Cathay," by Sir Walter H. Modhurst, formerly H.B.M.'s Consul at Shanghae, China. 1872.

Showing how far the Chinese are valuable and desirable immigrants (as colonists, labourers, and settlers) into Borneo.

WESTMINSTER:

PRINTED ]JY NICHOLS AND SONS, 25, PARLIAMENT STREE

December. 1878.

EUTF





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BOENEO,

APPENDIX I.

'^

Extract from Sketch of Borneo, by J. Hunt, Esq.

[Communicated to Sir Stamford Baffles m 1812.*]

The Island of Borneo extends from 7° 7' north to 4° 12' south latitude, and from 108° 45' to

119° 25'east longitude; measuring at its extreme length nine hundred miles, at its greatest breadth seven hundred, and in circumference three thousand. It is bounded on the north by the

Sulu seas, on the east by the straits of Macassar, on the south by the Java, and on the west by the China seas. Situated in the track of the most extensive and valuable commerce, intersected

on all sides with deep and navigable rivers, indented with safe and capacious harbours, possessing one of the richest soils on the globe, abounding in all the necessaries of human life, and boasting commercial products that have in all ages excited the avarice and stimulated the desires of man¬

kind,—with the exception of New Holland, it is the lai-gest island known. Of the existence of

this extensive territory, so highly favoured by Providence, and enriched by the choicest produc¬ tions of nature, there remains scarce a vestige in the geographical descriptions of the day.

The natives and the Malays formerly, and even at this day, call this large island by the ex¬

clusive name of Pulo Kalamantan, from an indigenous fruit so called. Borneo was the name only of a city, the capital of one of the three distinct kingdoms on the island. When Magalhaens visited it in the year 1520, ho saw a rich and populous city, a luxuriant and fertile country, a

powerful prince, and a magnificent court: hence the Spaniards hastily concluded that the whole

island not only belonged to this prince, but that it was likewise named Borneo In this error

they have been followed by all other European nations. The charts, however, mark this capital

* N B.—The footnotes to this Appendix were made in Decemher 1878. a



" Borneo Proper," or, in other words, the only place properly Borneo : this is the only confession of this misnomer that I have met with amongst Europeans. The natives pronounce Borneo, Bruni, and say it is derived from the word Brani, courageous : the ab-original natives within this district having ever remained unconquered.

The aborigines of Borneo, or Pulo Kalamantan, still exist in the interior in considerable numbers ; there are various tribes of them, speaking different dialects. Some of them acknow¬

ledge Malay chiefs, as at Landa, Songo, Mantan, &c. Several communities of them still remain under independent chiefs of their own nation; and everywhere their origin, their language, their

religion, their manners and customs, are totally distinct and apparent from those of the Islams, or

Malays, who have settled on the island. About Pontianak and Sambas they are called Dayaks; at Banjermasing, Biajus; at Borneo Proper, Muruts; farther northward, Orang Ida'an. Their original history is as much enveloped in obscurity as that of the Monocaboes of Malaya, the Rejangs andBattas of Sumatra, or the Tagals of the Philippines. On a nearer acquaintance with their language, customs, traditions, &c, perhaps an affinity in orgin may be discovered

among all the original possessors of the eastern isles. The Muruts and Orang Ida'an are much fairer and better featured than the Malays, of a more strong and robust frame, and have the credit of being a brave race of people. The Dayak is much darker, and approaches nearer in resemblance to the Malay. The Biajns I never saw.

The Islams, or Malayans, who now possess the sea-coasts of Borneo (as well as the sea-coasts of all the eastern islands), are said to be colonies from Malacca, Johore, &c. planted in the four¬ teenth century ; at this period, according to Mr. Poivre,

" Malacca was a country well-peopled, and was consequently well cultivated. This nation was once one of the greatest powers in the eastern seas, and made a very considerable figure in the theatre of Asia; they colonised Borneo, Celebes, Macassar, Moluccas, &c." The Malays on Borneo are like the Malays everywhere else, the most atrocious race of beings on the earth ; and from their general character, and imprudent institutions, both political and religious, are fast mouldering in self-decay, or mutual destruction.

From the earliest date that I have been able to trace, the island of Borneo was always divided into three distinct kingdoms. The kingdom of Borneo, properly so called, extended from

Tanjong Datu, in latitude 3° 15'north, to Kanukungan Point, in the Straits of Macassar, 1° 15'

north, which included the whole north part of the island. The kingdom of Sukudana (from suka, happiness, and dunia, the world, or earthly paradise), extending from Tanjong Dato to

Tanjong Sambar, which belonged to the King of Bantam (when or how acquired I have not

learned); and the remainder of the island from Tanjong Sambar to Kanukungan Point aforesaid, to the kingdom of Banjermasing (from bendar, a port of trade, and masing, usual, or the ordinary port of trade).

When the Portugese first visited Borneo, in 1520, the whole island was in a most flourishing state. The numbers of Chinese that had settled on her shores were immense; the products of their industry, and an extensive commerce with China in junks, gave her land and cities a far different aspect from her dreary appearance at this day, and their princes and courts exhibited a

splendour and displayed a magnificence which has long since vanished.

1



V

Pigofetta says, there were twenty-five thousand houses in the city of Borneo Proper, and that it was rich and populous. Much later accounts describe the numbers of Chinese and

Japanese junks frequenting her ports as great; but in 1809 there were not three thousand houses in the whole city, nor six thousand Chinese throughout that kingdom, and not a junk that had visited it for years. But the ports of Borneo have not dwindled away more than Acheen, Johore, Malacca, Bantam, Ternate, &c. All these places likewise cut a splendid figure in the eyes of our first navigators, and have since equally shared a proportionate obscurity.

Were the causes required which have eclipsed the prosperity of Borneo, and the other great emporiums of eastern trade that once existed, it might be readily answered—a decay of commerce.

In exact proportion as the intercourse with the Europeans with China has increased, in

precise ratio has the decrease of their direct trade in junks become apparent. The Portuguese first, and subsequently the Dutch, mistress of the eastern seas, exacted by treaties and other ways the Malay produce at their own rates, and were consequently enabled to undersell the junks in China. But these powers went further ; by settling at ports on Borneo, or by their guardas de

costas, they compelled the ports of Borneo to send their produce, calculated for the China

market, to Malacca and Batavia, which at length completely out up the direct trade by means of the Chinese junks.

The loss of their direct intercourse with China affected their prosperity in a variety of ways'. First, by this circuitous direction of their trade, the gruff goods, as rattans, sago, cassia, pepper, ebony, wax, &c, became too expensive to fetch the value of this double carriage and the attendant

charges, and in course of time were neglected ; the loss of these extensive branches of industry must have thrown numbers out of employment. But the loss of the direct intercourse with China had more fatal effects ; it prevented large bodies of annual emigrants from China settling upon her shores ; it deprived them of an opportunity of visiting the Borneon ports, and exercising their mechanical arts and productive industry ; and of thus keeping up the prosperity of the country in the tillage of the ground, as well as in the commerce of her ports. The old Chinese settlers by degrees deserted these shores; and, to fill up the chasms in their revenues by so fatal a change, the Rajas have been tempted to turn their views to predatory habits, and have permitted their lands to run to jungle, by dragging their wretched labourers from agricultural employments to maritime and piratical enterprises.

That the English were not insensible to the value and importance of the once valuable com¬ merce of Borneo may be inferred, not only from the number of the Honourable Company's regular ships annually despatched to her ports prior to the year 1760 (vide Hardy's Shipping Register), but from the efforts they have repeatedly made to establish themselves on her shores. There still exist the remains of a British factory at Borneo Proper. Before the year 1706, they had made two successive attempts to fortify themselves at Benjarmasing; twice they have attempted an establishment on the sickly islaad of Balambangan (lying north of Borneo, near Maludu); and in 1775 the Houourable Company's ship

" Bridgewater

" was sent to Pasir with similar views.



T

The failure of these British attempts, as well as the exclusion of all other powers from the

ports of Borneo, may be principally attributed to the sordid desire of the Dutch of monopolising the whole produce of the Eastern Archipelago, and their rooted jealousy in'opposing the establish¬ ment of every other power in the vicinity of Java, or that of the Spice Islands.

The wet season commences from September, and ends in April, when heavy rain, hard

squalls, and much thunder and lightning are experienced. From April to September is called the dry season, but even in this portion of the year seldom a day elapses without a smart shower or two. The monsoons on the northerly shores of Borneo are found to correspond with those

prevalent in the China seas, viz. from the north-east from October to April, and from the south¬ west the rest of the year. To the southward, about Banjermasing,* the monsoons are the same as in the Java seas, i.e., westerly from October to April, and easterly the rest of the year. Those

parts of Borneo near or upon the equator have variable winds all the year, and land and sea- breezes close in shore.

This country is by no means so warm as one would be led to imagine by its proximity every¬ where to the line: this arises from the perpetual refreshing showers and the land and sea breezes, the former being wafted over innumerable rivers. In the month of November the thermometer at Pontiana ranges from 78° to 82°.

During the wet season the rivers swell and overflow the adjacent shores, and run down with such continued rapidity that the water may be tasted fresh at sea at the distance of six or seven miles from the mouths : these overflowings fertilise the banks and adjacent country, and render the shores of Borneo, like the plains of Egypt, luxuriantly rich. Susceptible of the highest possible culture, particularly in wet grain, in the dry season the coast, from these overflowings, presents to the eye the richest enamelled fields of full-grown grass for miles around. It is at this season that whole herds of wild cattle range down from the mountains in the interior to fatten on the plains ; but during the wet season they ascend to their hills.

The whole of the north, the north-west, and the centre of Borneo, is extremely mountainous. The greatest portion of the ancient kingdom of Borneo Proper is extremely elevated. That ot Kini Balu, or St. Peter's Mount, in latitude 6° north, is perhaps one of the highest mountains known. The country around Sambas, Pontiana and Sukadana is occasionally interspersed with

a few ranges of hills, otherwise the land here might be deemed low. But to the southward, and

more particularly to the east, in the Straits of Macassar, it is very low. The shore in these latter

places is extremely moist and swampy ; but the interior is said to be dry. The common charts of Borneo will show the innumerable rivers that water this vast island

in every possible direction; but it is worthy of remark that all the principal rivers on this island have their main source in a large lake in the vicinity of that stupendous mountain before men¬

tioned, Kini Balu. The River Banjermasing takes its rise from thence, and, after traversing in all its windings a distance of 1,500 miles, intersecting the island into two parts, falls into the Java sea. Its rise and fall is said to be twelve feet, and it has only nine feet at low water on the

* Banjermasing, Pontianak, Sukadnna, Sambas, are all in the Dutch part of Borneo.



v-

bar. It is said to have numberless villages scattered on its banks; but I have obtained no

particular accounts of them or their produce. The great river of Borneo Proper is certainly the finest on the island. It is a deep navigable

and majestic stream ; it has three fathoms upon the bar at low water ; the rise and fall is, I

believe, fifteen feet; there are docks here for Chinese junks of five or six hundred tons, and a first-rate ship of war might get up far above the town. The country too is populous, productive, and healthy. The southern branch of this river has been well surveyed, but the branch leading to the Murut country is little known; it has its source in Kini Balu.

The third most considerable river on Borneo is the Kinabatangan, lying in the north of the

island, and emptying itself into the Sulu seas. It is said to be deep and navigable much farther than the Banjermasing River ; it has several mouths, but it has never been surveyed. The rivers

Kuran, Pasir,* and a variety of others that fall into the Straits of Macassar, are said to be noble

streams, navigable for vessels of large burden; but I have no accurate information of them. The harbour of Sandakan f is one of the finest in the world: a correct chart of the same is published. The harbour of Tambisan, near Cape Unsang, is equal to Pulo Pinang, and calculated for careen¬

ing and building ships; a tolerable chart of these is also published. Situated as Borneo is, immediately under the equator, everything that can be produced in

vegetation by the combined influence of heat and moisture is here displayed in the highest luxriance and super-excellence. All the Oriental palms, as the cocoa-nut, the areca, the sago, &c. abound here. The larger grasses, as the bamboo, the canna, the nardus, assume a stately growth, and thrive in peculiar luxuriance. Pepper is found wild everywhere, and largely cultivated about Banjermasing and the districts of Borneo Proper. The laurus cinnamomum and cassia

oderiferata are produced in abundance about Kimanis.J In no part of the world does the camphor tree flourish in equal perfection as in the districts of Maludu and Paitan, in the north of Borneo. The ebony, the dammar, the tree that yields the finest dragon's blood in the world, all abound here. The cotton and coffee trees are found in all parts of Borneo, though not much attended to. The chocolate nut of Sulu is preferred at Manilla to that from South America. The tree that yields the clove-bark, and the nutmeg, and clove, thrive luxuriantly, though never tried to any extent.

The woods about Pontianak for carpentry and joinery are, kayu bulean, chena, mintangore, laban, ebony, iron wood, dammar, and dammar laut, &c, &c. The pine abounds in the Bay of

Maludu, teak at Sulu. The fruit-bearing trees which enrich and adorn the Indian continent

offer, on the Borneon shore, all their kindred varieties, nurtured by the bountiful hand of luxuriant nature. The durian, mangosteen, rambutan, proya, chabi, kachang, timon, jambu, kniban, besides the nanka or jack, tamarind, pomplemose, orange, lemon and citron, all the kindred varieties of the plantain, banana, melon, annanas, pomegranate, &c, are found on Borneo.

The garden-stuffs met with are onions, garlic, yams, pumpkins, brinjals, greens, beans, cucum¬ bers ; and turnips, cabbages, and potatoes would succeed were there Europeans to attend to them.

The elephant was said to be seen about Cape Unsang, where several teeth are still found; § * Kuran, Pasir, in Dutch Borneo. f Sandakan, Tambisan, Cape Unsang, on the north-east coast, in the Company's territory. J Kimanis, Maludu, Paitan, in the Company's territory. § Elephants still exist in large numbers in the province of Kinabatangan.

b

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6

but it is conceived this animalis extinct on the island. There are no dromedaries nor camels ; nor are horses, asses, or mules met with on Borneo (the former are seen at Sulo). None of the

larger breed of the feline species are found here, as the lion, tiger, leopard; nor the bear, the

wolf, the fox, nor even a jackal or dog that I ever saw. The orang-outang, or the man of the

woods, is the most singular animal found in these regions. The rivers swarm with alligators ; and the vraods with every variety of the monkey tribe. The names of other animals on Borneo

are, the bodok or rhinoceros, pelando or rabbit, rusa or stag, kijang or doe, minjagon, babi utan, or wild hog, tingileng, bintangan, &o. There are buffaloes, goats, bullocks, hogs, besides the rat and mouse species.

There are few snakes on the sea-coast, owing to the moisture; plenty, however, are found in the interior.

The coasts and rivers abound with excellent and wholesome fish in the greatest variety, and of the most delicious flavours; but such is the miserable state of society, that few Malays have either the inclination or the inducement to venture beyond the mouths of their rivers in quest of them; and even there they are more indebted to the industry of the Chinese with their fishing- stakes than to their own labour for the supply of their markets. The names of their fish are, the kakab, klabaw, jilawat, lai-is, pattain, udang or prawn, shrimp, talang, sinanging, bawan, rowan, taylaon, duri, bleda, tingairy, alu-alu, pako, jumpul, pari or skait, boli ayam, tambam or

shad, belut or eel, iyu or shark, iida or sole, batu batu, kabab batu, klaoi, krang or cockle, tiram or oyster, tipy and lapis pearl oysters, cupang or muscle, all the varieties of the turtle, with several other sorts.

The ornithology of Borneo is somewhat limited. There are the bayan, nuri, dara, pepit or

sparrow, tukukur or turtle-dove, berkey, kandang, kiridi, gogaw or crow, seyrindit, layang or

swallow, kalilawan. The Chinese rear ducks; the tame fowl abounds ; but the turkey, goose, and peafowl are seldom met with.

The principal gold mines on Borneo are in the vicinity of Sambas*. There is a mountain called Guning Pandan, about eighty miles inland; from this branch out three rivers, one leads to

Mompava, one to Batu Bulat, near Tanjong Mora, and one to Landa; the whole intermediate area between the above rivers is of a firm yellow argillaceous schistus, or ferruginous quartz, interspersed with horn and vitreous ores, of a remarkable dark reddish colour, abounding with the richest veins of gold, and equal if not superior to any mine extant. There are only fifty parets or mines now wrought in the whole kingdom of Sukadana, thirty of which are in the Sambas dis¬

trict, each mine having at least three hundred men, Chinese, employed in them. Their pay, one with another, is four dollars per mensem.

The mines are rented from the Raja at the rate of fifty bunkals of gold per mine per annum, besides a capitation tax of three dollars per head on every Chinaman. There are thirty thousand Chinese in the Sambas districts, and they feel themselves strong enough to oppose or evade this tax: it hence becomes a perpetual contest between greedy extortion on the one side, and avaricious chicane on the other; there are besides about twelve thousand Malays and Dayaks.

The Laurat gold mines are situated to the eastward of the town of Sambas, and are par- * Sambas (gold), Montrador, Sanda (diamonds), in Dutch Borneo.



t

ticularly rich and productive. The mines of Siminis are one day's journey from Sambas, up a

small creek leading from Sambas river, below the town; and the mines are abundant. Salako is

up a river fifteen miles south of the Sambas river ; it lies nearly forty miles up, but communicates

with Sambas by another river: here the metal is found more abundant than anywhere else; and

twenty thousand Chinese are found in this district. Mantrado is three days' journey up the

Mompava River ; it is under an independent Malay prince. Some accounts make the population of this district great, near fifty thousand Dayaks, Malays, and Chinese; but perhaps half the

number may be nearer the truth; these are chiefly employed on the gold mines, and in producing food for the miners: these mines, however, do not produce that quantity which they might under

Chinese management. Mandore is about a day's journey from Pontianak, and belongs to the

Sultan; it is reckoned a very rich mine, though but recently wrought. There are as yet only twelve parets of about two hundred men each, but it is capable of extension. Likewise are found

in this district some very rich specimens of copper-ore; it has not as yet been wrought, gold

being deemed a much more productive article. The Sultan wishes, however, he had some boring utensils and an experienced miner, to enable him to decide whether it would be worth working under the peculiar circumstances ahove mentioned. Numbers of Chinese are settled in this dis¬

trict, aud the population is annually increasing. About three days' journey up the Pongole River lies the district of Songo, with a population

of twenty-five thousand souls, Dayaks, and a few Chinese, under a Malay and an independent

prince. The population is chiefly employed on the rich mines of gold in the neighbourhood,

which is particularly pure and abundant; but the mines are not wrought with the same industry

as those under Chinese management. The Dutch thought it of so much consequence as to keep a

force at Songo, and to place the present Raja on that musnud. About two days' journey farther

up lies another gold district called Santam, the inhabitants of which are principally Dayaks.

Beyond Santam, and higher up on the same river, lies the town of Sukadow, abounding in gold,

the inhabitants of which are also Dayaks. Matan belongs to the Rajah of that name: he had the title of Raja of Sukadana until driven

out of the latter place by the Dutch seventeen years ago. There are ten thousand Dayaks in this

district, and a few Chinese and Malays. The mines of gold are abundant, and capable of becom¬

ing highly productive, as well as the mines of iron and unwrought tin; but the Sultan is much

addicted to the use of opium, and hence neglects a valuable country, capable, under better manage¬

ment, of becoming the most valuable district in all Borneo.

About three days' journey from Pontiana lies the celebrated mountain of Landa, which, after

Golconda, is the most valuable diamond mine in the world. There are at least thirty thousand

people, principally Dayaks, employed on the mines and agriculture; it belongs to a Malay prince, raised to that musnud twenty-five years ago by the Dutch, through the agency of the present Sultan of Pontianak ; here also much gold is produced, and much more might be had under proper

management. There is a very valuable gold mine in the north of Borne, at a place called Tampasuk, but the

working of the mines has been discontinued.*

Tampasuk is at present the residence of one of the Company's agents.



8

The whole produce of the gold mines of Sukadana is said to be annually about twenty piculs, or a million of dollars, at twenty-five dollars a bunkal; but no calculation of this sort can possibly be correct. Living, as the Chinese do, under the rapacity of despotic and ferocious freebooters, who are actuated by no one principle of honour, justice, or good faith, it is their interest to conceal the riches they amass, not only to preserve themselves from the clutches of these tyrants, but as the most compact substance to transport to their native shores, to which they repair with the fruits of their industry, by the annual junks that arrive at Pontianak, leaving the mines to the new settlers; from two to three hundred leave to Potianak every year.

The standard of Slakow gold at Pontianak is affixed at twenty-three Spanish dollars the bunkal, of two dollars weight. The Songo and Laurat is twenty-five dollars the said bunkal.

Not having had an opportunity to inspect any of the gold mines personally, I know not if the ores readily melt of themselves, or whether they require the aid of any fluxes before they yield the metal; but I believe the principal attention of the miners is directed to the rich veins of pure native gold, and that no operation is performed beyond that of pulverising and simple washing; all the gold about Pontianak being in dust, though some I have met with in Borneo

Proper was run into bars. About Lancia, where the diamonds are found, the whole of the stratum is observed to be a clay of a red-burnt appearance, nearly to the same degree as that of burnt

bricks, which gives to the rivers hereabouts a peculiar tinge. Whether this has been formed by the action of subterraneous fires, or is the effect of volcanoes or earthquakes, I cannot decide ; the latter are said to be frequently felt at Pontianak and at Sambas; and the former are said to exist in the central mountains of Borneo.

From the slovenly manner in which the diamonds are sought for by the Dayaks, they seldom collect them of a size exceeding three or four carats weight each. When rough, the Landa diamond has a white or yellow hue; but none are found of that inky and flinty tinge, so valuable in some of the Golconda diamonds. But that Landa does produce them of a very considerable

size, the extensive and valuable specimens in Java, as well as the quantities annually sent to

Batavia, will evince. The King of Matan is at this instant in possession of a diamond weighing 367 carats ; the value of which, according to the old mode of calculation, would be 367 x 367 x 2

269,378/. The Sultan of Pontianak says, however, that a much larger price was offered for it

by the Dutch government of Java. He refused, it is said, twenty-five laks of dollars, two sloops of rice, fifty pieces of cannon, and a hundred muskets. Several from twenty to thirty carats have been dug up. At Mompava there are said to be very rich copper-mines; but from want of

population, a vigorous government, and scientific mineralogists, little is to be hoped from them at the present clay. At Pulo Bongorong, near Borneo Proper, there is plenty of loadstone found.

About one degree north of Sambas their is a country called Sarawak, belonging to the Rajah of Borneo Proper ; there is a vast district abounding in tin, in veins as rich and as plentiful as those wrought on Banca: but they have been neglected for a series of years ; they were partially wrought before those of the latter were discovered, in the beginning of the last century. The

tyranny of that government, the want of hands, and the contiguity of rich and valuable gold¬ mines, have together caused their utter neglect; and there is little probability of more favourable

results, except under a change of government, and a happier order of things.



y

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In the Matan districts there is an extensive and most valuable iron-mine, producing pure metal without any admixture of ore : it is fully equal in quality to the best Swedish iron. They run it into shot; and much of it is exported ; but the gold-mines in its vicinity, and the want of a proper government, are obstacles to its further productiveness and utility. At Maday, on the north-east coast of Borneo, in the province of Mangidara, there is a very rich mine of gold. Pasir and Coti, in the Straits of Macassar, produce considerable quantities of gold ; and gold and

diamonds are brought down by the river to Benjarmasing. I have, however, no accurate

information on the subject, and can simply note the general fact.

There are several fine specimens of crystal fouud at Kimanis and Sulo; they call them water

diamonds. To give full effect to the mines in the kingdom of Sukadana, says the Sultan of Pon¬

tiana, and to raise the excess of food required for the additional hands, would together give

employment to at least a million of Chinese. Under the British flag he thinks thousands of new

settlers will find their way in the annual junks. All that extensive range from Cape Unsang, passing by the Tawi Tawi islands and Sulo, as

far as Baselan, is one vast continued bed of pearl-oysters, principally, of the Behoren or mother-

of-pearl-shell species ; these are called by the natives tipi. There is likewise an extensive bed of

the Coylon oyster, called by the Malays kapis : the principal banks of the latter are found in

Maludu Bay. The Sulo pearls have, from time immemorial, been the most celebrated, and

praised as the most valuable of any in the known world. Pigofetta, the companion of Magalhaens, mentions having seen in 1520 two Sulo pearls in the possession of the Raja of Borneo as large as

pullet eggs. Very large ones, from one to two hundred chaiv weight, are at all times to be

purchased at Sulo; and there are altogether sold here to the China junks, the Spaniards, &c, more than two laks of dollars worth annually. The quantity of mother-of-pearl shell, communibus

minis, sold there is two thousand piculs, six dollars a picul.* The fishery is partly carried on by the Malays and partly by the Chinese; the large pearls they endeavour to conceal as much as

possible, from a law that all pearls above a certain size of right belong to the Sultan. " The small narrow guts," says Dalrymple in his account of the Sulo seas,

u about Tawi Tawi, are the most rich and valuable fishery in the world." I have had an opportunity of inspecting the banks about Manar and Tutacoryn, as well as all the banks in the Sulo seas; but the former have not banks near as extensive, equalling in the quantity of oysters, in productiveness, size, or richness, the

Sulo pearl, nor are they to be compared in any way to the Sulo beds. Still the Ceylon fishery has netted the British Government from one to two laks of pagodas for permitting it to be fished

fourteen days annually. As this portion of Borneo belongs to the English, a much greater revenue might be drawn from these vast sources of wealth, under proper management.

As there are no people of sufficient opulence to contract for so vast a fishery, the Company might undertake it themselves ; three or four gun-boats would be necessary to protect the fisher¬

men, and a small fort should be ereeted at Tambisan or Tawi Tawi. But it is necessary to observe, the Sulo people do not practise diving at all, as is the case at Beharen and Ceylon, but only comprehend the slow method of dredging for the tipi with a thing like the fluke of a wooden anchor. It would be a desirable thing, in the event of prosecuing this valuable fishery as a

* At present more than 12,000 piculs at 36 to 40 dollars per picul. c



10

national concern, to obtain forty or fifty Arab clivers from Beharen, and perhaps an equal number of Chulias from Nagore and Negapatam, from the number employed annually on the Ceylon fishery. Those men would teach the Malay the superiority of diving, which can, in fourteen

days' fishing, bring into government a revenue of two laks of pagodas, pay the expenses of the

fishery, and enrich all parties concerned; whilst the Malayan operose plan of dredging perhaps affords but a precarious subsistence. But had they divers, from the extents of the banks, instead of fourteen days in the year, they might, one after another, be fished the whole year round, and never be exhausted. The Chinese fishermen, though laborious, possess no enterprise, and can never be prevailed on to dive, from apprehension of the sharks. The Caffris from New Guinea and the Arroes would be superior to them.

The Sultan of Sulo, in 1810, proposed to me to bring over one hundred Chulia divers from

Negapatam on our joint expense and profit; and the divers agreed to go over on receiving each

twenty-five rupees advance, their victuals being found, and one-fourth of the produce of oysters allowed them, as at Ceylon. Circumstances, however, occurred to prevent an undertaking which I think must have turned out highly lucrative. They dredge the banks all the year round. The water on the Tahow, Maludu, and Tawi Tawi banks, is from seven to ten fathoms deep; in other

places they fish in fifteen fathoms water. The Malays of Borneo understand the art of cutting, polishing, and setting their diamonds.

Gold and silver filagree works they excel in ; gunpowder is manufactured at Pontiana; brass cannon is cast at Borneo Proper; ironshot is run from their mine. They can manufacture and

repair krises, and clean their arms. Their carpentry extends to the building and repairing of

prows, and the erecting of a hut. Their industry is farther exerted in collecting birds-nests and

wax; in cutting rattans and felling timber ; in the pearl and tripan fisheries ; or as mariners in commercial or piratical pursuits. The tillage of the ground and the edible fisheries are often left to the more indefatigable industry of the Chinese. For the exercise of every other useful occu¬

pation also, the mechanical and scientific arts, and the labour of the mines, these indolent savages aro indebted solely to the superior industry and civilization of the Chinamen.

The amusements of the Malays in other parts are unpractised on the shores of Borneo : the

only ones I ever saw were flying the kite, swimming, and the songs of their women ; this latter is confined to the Rajas.

Wherever a water communication on Borneo presents, the indolence of the Malay will not

permit him to think of the construction of a road. In the interior, however, there are pathways in all directions; about Mompava, where the river is narrow and shallow, they have constructed several roads. Being a people much occupied in maritime pursuits, they prefer, like the

amphibious Dutch, travelling by rivers, or the innumerable cuts, canals, and creeks, which every¬ where intersect the country; besides, their prows afford more protection from surprise, and they conceive their town as safer by being surrounded by a jungle and situated in a swamp; nor have

they any conception beyond water-carriage. Their laws neither depend upon the Koran nor any written code, human or divine, beyond

the whim and caprice of the chief (assassin) and his gang of desperadoes. The Sultan of Pontiana

has, however, established the following regulations :—



11

Punishments for murder:—Life for life, except when the parties can commute the same by fine.

A proclamation is publicly affixed announcing the law that if any person be found adulterating gold dust, or uttering it so depreciated with a view to defraud, the perpetrator shall lose his right

\y r

arm, and the adulterated gold shall be confiscated. For theft:—Five dollars per head is given by the Sultan to anyone bringing in the head of a

thief: if brought in alive, he is suspended by the heels and flogged as far as nature can bear short of death, and the punishment repeated ad libitum.

Prisoners taken from an enemy, whether found in arms or not, are made slaves of or suffer

death, at the option of the captor. The Malay government is said to exhibit the feudal system in its most perfect form. The

chief, or Raja, issues his orders to the Pangerans, or princes of the blood; to the Datus, or nobles of royal descent; or to the Orang Kayas, or wealthy vassals. All these obey and follow him to war, free of expense, when the king is sufficiently powerful to enforce it; but whenever the vassal feels himself strong enough to throw off the yoke, and to assert his independence, he sets up for himself. These vassals exact the same obedience from their slaves or villains, who

pay the like deference only so long as they are compelled to observe and obey them. The pro¬ perty acquired by a slave he is often allowed to enjoy unmolested during his lifetime ; but at his death his master administers to the estate as heir, executor, and sole legatee.

In fact, it is a government that inspires on all sides one universal distrust: that rules by precedence of oppression without a view to protection. The chiefs dread the power of their

vassals, who, in return, apprehend everything from the rapacity of the governing power; whilst the bulk of the people, having no property to lose, are still compelled to appear abroad armed to defend their very persons from the outrage and violence of the next assassin they meet.

Should so fortunate an occurrence ever fall to the lot of Borneo—should a strong and a wise

government ever be established on her shores; a government that will religiously respect property, and secure to industry the fruits of her labour ; that will, by a wise system of laws, protect the

peaceable, and punish the violator of the laws of a well-organised society; that will direct their

industry to useful purposes, and check their propensities to violence and plunder—sueh a govern¬ ment, in a short series of years, Avould behold, as if by magic, a paradise burst from hei\ wilds, see cultivation smile upon her jungles, and hail a vast and increasing population, blessing the hand that awoke them to life, to happiness, and to prosperity. That so felicitous a change is not the mere reverie of a glowing imagination, or the sheer effusion of benevolence alone, is easily demonstrable.

Whoever has seen the Egyptian fertility of the soil, from the moistness of the climate, the numberless rivers meandering around and intersecting the country around in all directions, with the mild temperature of the climate, from similar causes—whoever considers the vast extent and inexhaustible wealth of her innumerable mines of pure native gold, her block-tin, her copper, her

iron, her diamonds, &c, her various valuable fisheries of pearl and tripan—whoever views her

ports, her harbours, and her productive shores, at the threshold of the over-teeming population of



12

China, and at the same moment recollects that the country abounds in various valuable products in the highest possible estimation, and of increasing demand in the empire of China—must easily conceive what a tempting field and rich harvest this land of promise holds out to their industry and cupidity under such a system of laws and government as we have deemed a sine qua non.

If, under the present codes of tyranny, oppression, and general ferocity, where nothing is

permanent but violence and desolation—if, under such a system of barbarism, a hundred thou¬ sand Chinese (which is the fact) have found inducements sufficiently strong to settle on her

shores, what might we not hope and expect from the over-burdened population of that vast

empire under a happier order of things The astonishing number of Chinese settled within a few years at Pulo Pinang, on a contracted soil, possessing no peculiar advantages but from a free trade and equitable laws impartially administered, is both a fact and an illustration ; and what

might not Borneo hope for from a happier soil, greater inducements, and other physical advan¬

tages Java, under the despotism of the Dutch, with the character of a sickly climate, and the remembrance of the cruel massacre of sixty thousand innocent Chinese, could still boast a hun¬ dred thousand of these people at the period it fell to the British arms; and withal, let it be remembered that these shores were once blessed with the industry of these people to a far greater extent under a happier period of her history.

Whatever, indeed, might prove the wrork of ages in various other parts of the globe, would, under the present circumstances of the Chinese empire, be instantaneous on these shores; and their habits of industry and civilization, when once rooted to the soil, would soon spread their genial influence to the extensive population of the interior; unite them in the bonds of social life; cement them in the general prosperity; and render these extensive shores a valuable appendage and an increasing resource to the wealth and power that brought about so happy a revolution in their affairs.

Tho town of Borneo Proper, the capital of the kingdom of the same name, lies in latitude 5° T north; it is situated fifteen miles up one of the finest rivers of the world, with three fathoms low water on the bar, and a rise and fall of fifteen feet. A correct plan of the river and town is published by Mr. Dalrymple. Here are mud docks for vessels of 500 or 600 tons. The town consists of about three thousand houses, built on stakes, in the middle of the river, with a popula¬ tion altogether of fifteen thousand souls, Chinese, Malays, Muruts, &c.

The palace is slightly fortified; but the Raja of Pontiana says, the Raja of Borneo Proper is preparing the means of defence, apprehending the resentment of the English in vindicating the rights of their flag, so frequently insulted by them with impunity; however, as there is sufficient water for a line-of-battle ship to the city, nothing need be apprehended from them. The remains of a stone fort up the river are still seen, but the one on Pulo Labuan is destroyed. Both banks of the river arc planted with pepper, which formerly produced sixty thousand piculs annually ; those are now running to decay from want of commerce. The Chinese junks, for years past, have ceased touching here, from the numberless piratical depredations committed upon them ; and the Portuguese from Macao have attempted to renew the trade from time to time, but at length, in 1808, their agent withdrew to Macao, a large ship having been cut off and the crew murdered the year preceding. They now have no other resource but piracy ; and the produce, such as it



13

V

is, finds its way in prows to Tringan, Sambas, Pontiana, Ligin, and Malacca. Very large quan¬ tities of the finest camphor in the world is procurable here; it comes down from the Murut country, by the great river; a great deal of wax, some gold, much birds-nest of an inferior quality, any quantity of sago, cassia, clove-bark, pepper, betel-nut, rattans, camphor-oil, &c, tripan, tortoise-shell, &c.

The hills hereabouts are clear of jungle, and wear a beautiful appearance, and, without the aid of history, bear evident marks of a more extensive population and culture. There are plenty of black cattle, buffaloes, goats, fruits and vegetables of all kinds, abundance and variety of fish, turtle, &c. The articles best suited for this market are coarse China, white cangyans, brass plates, China crockery, brass wire, tea, sugar-candy, coarse China silks and satins, blue and white coarse guras and salampories, coarse ventipallam handkerchiefs, arcot chintzes, iron and steel, quallies, cooking utensils, and other articles suited to a Malay market, all coarse ; no opium. The Borneo cattjr is two and a half lbs.

The English have been very desirous of a port in the China seas for ages past, but have generally appeared to stumble on the most unhealthy and ill-adapted places possible, such as Balambangan, Pulo Condore, &c.; and even the principal object of Lord Macartney's embassy was the obtaining of a cession of this nature. But if a capital harbour, a navigable and majestic river, a productive country, a healthy site, population ready formed, and a commerce all-sufficient to pay the expenses of an establishment (within one hundred miles of Balambangan), is required, the East India Company ought to have pitched upon Borneo Proper. It was once a most flourishing country, and a very short period under British auspices would render it the first mart in the east for China-Malayan commerce. There are large populous towns of Muruts, and Orang Ida'an, who abhor the Malays, but who would be soon reconciled to a milder and less traitorous government.

Kimanis lies in latitude 5° 8' north.* The town lies ten miles up the river, at the foot of some of the most beautiful hills I ever saw, and is inhabited by thirty-five thousand Orang Ida'an. The river is small and almost choked up at the mouth. This province has the following sea-ports in it, viz. : Kimanis, Benoni, Pappar, and Pangalat, each governed by Orang Kayas, and still continue to send their produce to Borneo Proper, consisting of ten piculs of birds-nests annually, two hundred piculs of wax, two piculs of camphor, and cassia, sago, betel-nut, and pepper, as much as required ; tripan, camphor-oil, and rice; with fruit, fish, and provisions, of sorts which are cheap and plentiful. The articles mentioned as fit for Borneo answer here, only their produce is had about fifty per cent, cheaper.

The province of Kini Balu has the following seaports : Putatan, Mangatal, Ananam, Kabatuan, Sulaman, Ambong, Abai, Tampassuk, and Pandassan.f The whole of this province is tremendously high. The stupendous mountain of Kini is about fifteen miles from Tampassuk, and belongs to the Rajah of Borneo Proper. The whole of this province is very fertile; it is the source of all the great rivers on the island, and is more populous with the aborigines of the country than perhaps the rest of the island put together. The gold mines of Tampassuk have

* This is the first port on this coast in the territory of Sabah ceded to the present Company, f All these places are in the Company's territory.

d



14

been mentioned; there are also mines of rock crystal. Tagaran and several other places abound in goats and cattle. Abai has a small harbour, and the whole of this coast is accurately laid down

by Lieutenant James Burton, of the sloop " Endeavour."* There are produced in this province

much wax, tortoise-shell, very fine camphor, sago, rattans, and a red bird's nest (which comes from Mantanane isle, to Pandassan). They send their produce to Borneo Proper. The pirates are commanded by Datus from Borneo Proper. The lake in the vicinity of Kini Balu is said to be delightful; it is many miles in circumference, well cultivated, populous, and productive. It is said to be very cold from the extreme elevation, and the inhabitants are almost as fair as

Europeans. There is a valuable coral-tree somewhere hereabouts. The Bay of Maludu, on the north of Borneo, is thirty miles in length, and from four to six

in breadth, with numberless rivers flowing into it. There is no danger on the right-hand shore

going up, but what is seen ; on the larboard shore considerable coral reefs are met with. The

principal towns are, Sungy Bassar, nearly at the head of the bay, and Bankoko on the left; the

former, under Sheriff Mahomed, sends its produce to Sulo ; the latter, under Orang Kayas, trades with Borneo Proper. The British, when last at Balambangan, threw up a small redoubt on the Benkoko side, with a view to supplies of rice and provisions ; and this part is tranquil and a good roadstead, being sheltered from the swell brought in by the sea-breeze.

The rich and valuable fishery of copis or Ceylon oyster in this bay has been mentioned ; it

might be rendered of considerable value. The whole of the rivers for miles up abound in rattans; Mr. A. Dalrymple thinks four thousand tons might be easily cut down every year without

exhausting it, and sent by junks to China. There are forests of beautiful pines of stately growth, well calculated for the larger masts, and in high esteem in China. There is no quarter of the world which abounds more in that species of the sea-turtle (called by the Malays pakayan) which

yields the shell; any quantity may be had on all the shores and isles of this bay. The interior abounds in camphor, which can be had in any quantities; so vastly abundant is

it, and so little does the Orang Ida'an know of the extreme value of this commodity, that a bamboo of camphor may be procured in exchange for a bamboo of salt. The petty towns are Sandeck, Bowcngun, Patasan, Pone, and Milawi. It produces in one year two hundred piculs of wax, fifty piculs of tortoise-shell, ten piculs of best camphor, and as much inferior; ten piculs of birds-

nests, at ten dollars the catty; first camphor, twenty-five; rattans, one dollar per picul; tortoise-

shell, ono dollar the catty ; wax, twenty the picul. Articles required are the same as at Borneo

Proper. Rice, provisions, fish, and fruits, are abundant and cheap; the sugar-cane also.

The province of Paitan is the principal district for camphor of any in the world, t Whole forests for miles everywhere meet the eye, and the produce from them is the finest that can be

conceived, large and transparent as Chin-chew sugar-candy. The principal towns are Pitan,

Kinarubatan, Kulepan, and the famous town of Sugut. The coast is so full of coral reefs, and

has been so very indifferently surveyed, that it is only frequented by prows ; there is a road from

Sugut to Bcngkoko in Maludu Bay. Much wax, tripan, sago, &c. is produced here.

* And by Captain Sir Edward Belcher in H.M.S. " Samarcand?' The whole of this country forms part of the

Company's territory. f Paitan is on the north-east coast of Borneo, and in this Company's territory, as well as the following—Labuk.



15

;y

"V

Labuk has the towns of Camburcan, Labuk, and Songsohi; its produce is somewhat similar

to that of Paitan, with the addition of clove-bark and birds-nests.

Sandakan; this celebrated harbour has been already mentioned as one of the finest in the

world. The towns within it are Towsum, Duyom, Lu, Bukean, Dom or Doung, Seagally-hood, and Tong-luly-luku; all these are governed by Datus from Sulo, who have expressly settled here

to collect the prodigious quantities of birds-nest abounding in this district. They are procured here at ten dollars the catty, and sent to Sulo, with tripan, wax, &c. The Sulos are very jealous of any ship going in here, and will leave no attempt untried in cutting off a vessel going in,

although an English port.* In the province of Mangidora lies the great River Kinnabatangan, which is navigable a vast

way up, with several towns of Orang Ida'an on its shores. The other towns are Salasany, Supa-

buscul, Tambesan, which forms also an elegant harbour, Laboan or Saboan, Tuncu, Salurong,

Giong, and Maday, which has a gold-mine before mentioned. The whole of this province, it is

said, will produce above one hundred piculs of the finest birds-nests, much black ditto, some

camphor, tripan, honey, wrax, dammer, Buru mats, fine spars: sago and pepper were formerly

largely cultivated here. The pearl-banks of Tawi Tawi have been mentioned.

Tirun. The sea-ports of this last-mentioned and valuable province, ceded to the English by the Sulos, are chiefly inhabited by Buguese people. The towns are Sibuko, Sambakung, Leo or

Ledong, Sikatak, Sabellar, Kuran or Barrow, Talysion Dumaung, Tapeandurian. The principal

ports are Kuran and Sibuku ; they produce a large quantity of very fine white birds-nests, a

quantity of black ditto, much dammer, sago, tripan, wax, rattans, camphor, honey, Buru mats,

gold, &c* In looking over the map of the world, it is a melancholy reflection to view so large a portion

of the habitable globe as all Borneo abandoned to barbarism and desolation; that, with all her

productive wealth and adArantages of physical situation, her valuable and interesting shores should

have been overlooked by all EurojDeans ; that neither the Dutch nor the Portugese, with centuries

of uncontrolled power in these seas, should have shed a ray of civilization on shores bordering

upon their principal settlements; that her ports and rivers, instead of affording a shelter to the

extensive commerce of China, should at this enlightened period of the world hold out only terror

and dismay to the mariner ; and that all that she should have acquired from the deadly vicinage and withering grasp of Dutch power and dominion has been the art of more speedily destroying each other, and rendering themselves obnoxious to the rest of mankind. Now that her destinies

are transferred to the enlightened heads and liberal hearts of Englishmen,—now that her fortunes

are embarked under the administration of a wise and liberal government,—we may confidently

hope that a happier order of things will, under the blessing of an all-ruling Providence, speedily restore these extensive shores to peace, to plenty, and to commerce; and we ardently trust that

another age may not be suffered to pass away without exhibiting something consolatory fo the

statesman, the philosopher, and the philanthropist. * At Sandakan one of the Residents of the Company is established since the country was ceded to them by the Sultan

of Salu, whose rule has since then ceased to exist. * The Sibuco Biyer on the cast coast is the southern limit of the Compan) 's territory.



16

APPENDIX II.

The Physical and Political Geography of the Districts lying between

Gaya Bay and the Tampassuk Kiver, with a Geographical Sketch of

Maludu Bay and the north-east coast of Borneo, by Spencer St. John,

formerly H.B.M's. Consul-General in the Island of Borneo.

[From " Life in the Forests of the Ear East," 2 vols., London 1862.]

The Coast Line—The Rivers—The Bays—Gaya Bay—Abai—Character of Interior Country—Plains— Hills—Kina Balu—First Ascent by Mr. Low—Description of Summit—The Peaks—The Northern Eangcs—Steep Granite Slopes—The Spurs—The Main Spur—Interior Country—Distant Mountains —Plain—Villages—The Lake—Vegetation on Kina Balu—The Rivers—The Ananam—The Ka- batuan—The Mengkabong—The Tawaran—The Abai—The Tampasuk—Its Interior—Political Geography—Inhabitants—The Lamms—The Bujas—Mahomedans—Appearance—Their Women— Their Houses—Love of Cockfighting—Fine Breed of Fowls—Other Inhabitants—The Ida'an—Their Houses—Their Women—Tatooing—Comfortable House—Method of Government—No Wars— Aborigines Honest—Exceptions—Agriculture—Ploughing—Remnant of Chinese Civilisation— Tobacco—Cotton—Good Soil—Amount of Population—Numerous and Extensive Villages—The Tampasuk—The Tawaran—Mengkabong—Other Districts—Enumeration—Manufactures—Lanun Cloths—Trade—Difficult Travelling—Languages—Geology—Sandstone—Greenstone—Climate of Kina Balu temperate—Map—Addition—Maludu Bay—Western Point—Western Shore—Mountains —Head of Bay—Population—Accounts compared—Bengkoko—Minerals—Eastern Point—Banguey —Difficult Navigation—Small Rivers and Bays—Paitan—Sugut—Low Coast—Labuk Bay—High Land—Bcnggaya—Labuk—Sandakan—Story of the Atas Man—Kina Batangan—Cape Unsang— Tungku—Population—The Ida'an—The Mohamedans.

The coast line, as viewed from the sea, presents the following appearance : Gaya Island, and the shores of Gaya, and Sapangar Bays are hilly, and this continues to within a mile of the mouth of the Mengkabong; the land then becomes flat, with the exception of the Tambalan hill, as far as the mouth of the Sulaman creek or river. High land then commences, which continues for a short distance beyond the Abai, when it again becomes low, and presents the same appearance for

many miles beyond the Tampasuk river, the coast being fringed by Casuarinas. The mouths of the rivers Ananam, Kabatuan, Mengkabong, Tawaran, Sulaman, Abai, and

Tampasuk are all shallow, and unfit for European vessels; the deepest having but nine feet at low water, and with the exception of the Ananam, Kabatuan, and Abai, are much exposed during both monsoons, and are rendered dangerous by the numerous sandbanks that lie off their mouths. The Ananam in Gaya Bay, and the Kabatuan in Sapangar Bay, are only suited for native craft. The Abai has more water, and, its mouth being sheltered, small vessels, at certain times of tide, might enter; within, the river deepens to four fathoms, and the surrounding hills render it a perfectly land-locked harbour.



17

r

Vs.

Thei'e are several bays along this coast which insure complete shelter for shipping. The finest of these harbours is that composed of the two bays Gaya and Sapangar, which is large enough to afford protection during both monsoons for every vessel that trades to the East; it contains within itself minor harbours, as one on the north-east of Gaya Island, which has thirteen fathoms, and is perfectly safe; while abundance of fresh water may be obtained on its western shore. Lokporin, in Sapangar Bay, is also a secure anchorage. Gantisan, the Malay town on the north-eastern shore, though good for shipping, is not so secure for very small craft, as squalls from the south-west raise rather a heavy sea there. Several coral reefs jut out from the northern shore, with deep water on either side of them. This harbour is the most important in Borneo, from its commanding position in the China seas, and from its great security.

Good shelter may also be found in Ambong and Usukan Bays, but I have not entered them myself. Ambong is described as running deej) into the land, and surrounded by hills with smooth surfaces and of gentle ascent; the alternations of wood and cleared land affording a most beautiful landscape. The harbour of Ambong abounds in beautiful sheltered little bays, but barred by coral patches, which rise exactly from the spots where they disturb the utility of these snug retreats.* The next, Abai, affords excellent shelter during both moonsoons, though open to the north-west; it is, however, of inferior importance, though fresh water may be obtained in small quantities on the grassy plain at the entrance of the river—water, however, is rarely absent where the land is hilly. Wherever the country is low, and occasionally elsewhere, there are sandy beaches. The west end of Gaya Island, Gaya Head, and the points between Sulaman and Abai, are rocky ; beyond these appear broad sandy beaches.

Passing the coast line, the country presents varied forms; the hills that surround Gaya harbour are low and cleared at the top, bearing at present a rank crop of grass; others have a reddish tint, from the ferruginous nature of the soil; the rest are covered with jungle. On entering the Kabatuan, the banks are lined with a narrow belt of mangrove, but the hills rise immediately at the back, and this character appears to extend far into the interior both of the Kabatuan and Mengkabong. From the latter river to the Sulaman stretches a plain, perhaps seven miles in width, varied by a few very low hills. The country changes here, and broken ranges extend to the Abai—hill and plain are then intermixed ; but, as soon as we approach the Tampasuk, the country opens, and, for Borneo, an extensive plain spreads out, reaching to the foot of the Maludu Mountains. It is, however, occasionally diversified by low, undulating sandstone hills.

This flat, level ground is admirably adapted for rice cultivation, as it is grass land, without any jungle. On leaving these plains ranges of hills commence, rising generally with great abruptness, presenting steep sides and narrow ridges, and running for the most part in an eastern and western direction. There are, however, exceptions to the above description : a few of the hills have easy slopes, and many of the ranges are connected by cross ridges running north and south, particularly at the heads of valleys where the waters of the different tributaries flow in opposite directions to join their main rivers. The highest of the hills we measured was under 3,000 feet. The ranges towards the interior are higher, and at the back of these are very lofty

* " Voyage of the Samarang," vol. i., p. 190. e



18

mountains, including Kina Balu,* 13,698 feet (Belcher); Saduk-Saduk, about 6,000 feet; and

others, whose names we could not obtain, estimated at above 7,000 feet. All the hills in these

districts that we examined consisted of sandstone until we reached Kina Balu.

With regard to the height of that mountain, various opinions have been entertained; bu

until some one is fortunate enough to reach its summit with a good barometer, I think we may rest contented Math Sir Edward Belcher's measurement by trigonometry. He makes it 13,698 feet. Mr. Low, on his first ascent, had a very inferior barometer; while during the last two

expeditions we were provided with magnificent barometers by Adie ; but unfortunate accidents

rendered them useless. However, sufficient observations were taken to show that the first

barometer was incorrect, and, though both inclined, during our first joint expedition, to place the height of the mountain at about 11,000 feet, the last makes us feel assured that we under¬

rated the height. I am, therefore, inclined, from all the observations made, to think that Sir Edward Belcher's measurement is correct.

The summit of Kina Balu consists of syenite granite, which is in many places so jointed as to give it the appearance of being stratified. About ten peaks spring from a line running from east to west, while about half a mile to the southward rises another detached peak. Between the latter and the western portion of the former is an open space, like a broad terrace, with sloping sides, clown which huge slabs are continually gliding. The southern peak presents a very different

aspect, according to the point from which we view it; from the terrace, it looks sharp, not above a yard in breadth, while from the east and west it seems quite rounded. This renders it com¬

paratively easy of ascent. On three sides it is perpendicular, while, on the south, it presents no material difficulty. Without careful barometrical observations it will be impossible to fix on the

highest peak. From several views, the southern, the summit of which I gained during the first

trip, appeared as high as the others, while from the terrace both east and west appeared rather

higher. The west has a rounded appearance, but we failed to discover a way of ascending to its summit. I reached within perhaps forty feet, when it presented only perpendicular sides. It is

gradually giving way before atmospheric influences, its northern base being covered with huge angular stones that have fallen ; the summit is still overhanging, and much of it apparently ready to topple over. Between the western and eastern peaks, on the edge of the cliffs which overlook

deep chasms below, is a sort of wall, principally of huge granite rocks, some so perched on the

others that at first sight it appears the work of man—geologically explained, I suppose, by the

wearing away of the softer portions of the rock around. Some of the peaks present the appear¬ ance of a thumb, while others are massive, as those that rise on either side of the spot where

Mr. Low, in 1851, left a bottle. The summit is above two miles in length, and I observed that in descending to its north¬

west and east spurs, the rocks assume a perfectly serrated appearance. Kina Balu extends a long distance towards the north-east or east-north-east, its height varying perhaps from 10,000 to

11,000 foot, but partially divided from the parent mountain by a deep chasm. From the top we

did not sec this portion of the mountain ; in fact, the mist generally obscured the view, leaving but patches visible. The summit of the mountain, as I have before observed, consists of syenite

* Called Kiui by the Dusuns and Ida'an.



19

Y

granite, but every here and there it is crossed by belts cf a white rock. For about 3,000 feet

below the peaks there is but little vegetation, and the face of granite sweeps steeply at an angle of

37-^ degrees. In the gullies, and in other sheltered spots, are thickets of flowering shrubs, prin¬

cipally of rhododendrons—a few even extending to the base of the peaks, particularly in the

" bottle gully." From what we observed, the summit of the mountain can only be reached by the way we

followed—I mean that portion above 9,000 feet. To that spot there are said to be two paths.

Kina Balu throws out on every side great shoulders or spurs, which have also their sub-spurs.

The principal are the north-west, very steep; the west-north-west, which sub-divides. On the

western face of the mountain there are but minor spurs, which leave 5,000 feet of precipice above

them. From the southward two huge spurs extend, on one is the village of Kiau. It springs

from the left of the southern face, and running south-west, turns to west and by north, and sub¬

divides. The next spur that springs from the eastern portion of the southern face is in every

respect the most important. It may be ealled, for the sake of distinction, the main spur. Those

to the left we could not observe fulty, as we then only saw them from above, but from the north¬

east coast they appeared to slope very gradually. The main spur runs at first to the south-west

for about five miles ; it then follows almost a south-south-west direction for about twenty miles,

throwing off, on either side, many sub-spurs. This is the range that is observed from the sea, and

gave the notion of a back-bone to Borneo; but beyond these twenty-five miles it does not appear

to extend. In fact, mountain ranges, running to the east and west, are distinctly visible—the

first, at not a greater distance than thirty-five or thirty-six miles, appears to cross close to the end

of the main spur. If we were disappointed by not obtaining complete views from the summit, we

were partially repaid by the clear view we had of the country lying to the south and south-east of

Kina Balu. We were at an elevation of between 7000 to 8000 feet on the main spur, and

observed numerous mountain ranges whose bearings I will give.

High peaked mountains S. -J E 8,000 ft 30 miles distance.

„ „ S.E. by E 7,000 ft IS „ S.E. by E. f E. 7,000 ft 18 „

A range: highest peak S 8,000 ft 25 „ S.S.W - 70

A range: eastern end of a long table range) running E. by N. and W. by S i ' ' J "

A peak S.E. | E — very distant.

A long range peak S.E — „

The latter is stated to be in the Kina Batafigan country. The distances and heights are

estimated. Between us and the mountains, bearing south-east by east eighteen miles, there was a grassy

plain, perhaps three miles by two, on which were many villages, and through this there flowed a

fair-sized river. We could trace its course as far as the third spur that springs from the main

one, then a line of hills appeared to obstruct it; but beyond we could again trace the course of a

stream, which is probably its source. This river, it was stated by the people of the country,

y r~



20

flows into the lake of Kina Balu. It runs from the south-west to the north-east. With the

exception of the plain above-mentioned and a marsh, whose commencement we could observe north-east of the plain, all the country appeared hilly, and most of the land was cleared, and either under cultivation or showed the remains of former plantations. We could observe in the second valley two villages—the first called Tuhan, the next Inserban, and at both cotton is said to be cultivated. Many villages and detached houses were also observed, whose names our guides had forgotten. The road to the lake is by the two above-mentioned villages, while the names of those beyond are Penusuk, Tambian, Paka, and Coporingan—these are stated to be on the route, or close to the lake. A few words concerning this mythic sheet of water, as it has been generally considered : that it exists to the east of the mountain appears from inquiry to be almost certain. Its size it is unnecessary to estimate, though our informants stated that, standing on one bank, it was not possible to see the opposite one. It cannot, however, be of the great size marked in the old maps, or in the situation assigned to it, as the whole country, from east-south-east to the western coast, was distinctly visible, and the Ida'an expressly stated that it was farther to the north and east of the plain I have before noticed. Mr. Low made many inquiries during our first

trip, and wo jointly questioned the Ida'an, on many occasions during our long stay at the Kiau

village, and they spoke of it as a certainty, many affirming that they themselves had been on

trading expeditions to it. I must now make a few remarks on the vegetation which covered the mountain. Cultivation

extends, in a few places, to the height of 3,500 feet, but beyond that there is a fine jungle, on the main spur, to the height of 6,000 feet; it then begins to degenerate, and in the exposed portion of the ridge the trees are bent across the path, inferior in size and covered with moss. But above

this height, in sheltered spots, the trees again increase in size; beyond 7,000 feet, however, there are few fine trees, the vegetation changing its character, most of it consisting of flowering shrubs,

varying in height from ten to twenty feet. The trees, however, on the sides of the spurs con¬

tinued of a comparatively large size until we had passed 9,000 feet; at 10,000 feet the shrubbery became very straggling, and above that it was only scattered among the granite rocks. On the

west north-west spur, called the Marei Parei, the vegetation even at 4,500 feet was exceedingly stunted in many places; while above, in equally exposed situations, the jungle was of fair size:

probably, the nature of the soil may account for it, that of the Marei Parei district being formed

of decomposed serpentine, containing very much peroxide of iron. Kina Balu appears to be the

seat of the pitcher-plant, Mr. Low having made a collection of extraordinary-shaped ones—

perhaps the most beautiful in the world. I will now make a few observations on each of the rivers which drain these districts. I have

already remarked that the shallowness of their mouths renders them unfit for European com¬

merce ; in fact, the fresh water-streams soon become mere mountain torrents. The Ananam I

have not ascended; the Kabatuan is apparently but a collection of salt-water creeks, with a few

fresh-water rivulets. The former town of Menggatal was situated about three miles up it, and

only at flood tide would it float a frigate's barge. Near the town the banks were grassy, and

many cocoa-nuts were grown in the neighbourhood. The Mengkabong also can scarcely be called

a river, it is rather a large salt-water lake with numerous islands, some containing hills of several



21

J

hundred feet in height; it is very shallow, many portions of it being dry at low tides, while others have but a few inches of water. It appears to be filling up fast, and perhaps affords a clue to the cause of the formation of the plains that extend beyond, which all appear to be composed of alluvial deposits. Many fresh-water rivulets drain the neighbouring hills, and pour their waters into this creek, but it is always salt; it extends perhaps five or six miles in a straight line from the shore. The Sulaman I have not entered, but I have seen it from the hills on many occasions ; it presents the appearance of a lake, and is reported as a salt-water creek. We could

observe, by the rivulets that drained into the Tawaran, that the Sulaman has no interior, but it has depth of twelve feet at its entrance. The Tawaran, on the contrary, is a fresh-water river even to its mouth, the flood tides making but as light impression on it. Large native prahus can

safely ascend it for six miles ; after that it depends on the state of the weather, rising and falling very rapidly as it is influenced by the rains. The banks of the river as far as Bawang village are

flat; there the hills commence, and three miles beyond the Tawaran divides into two branches, one coming from the south, the other from the east-south-east. They immediately degenerate into mountain torrents, and are not to be used by boats, but at some risk produce is occasionally brought clown on rafts. Every range of hills affords the parent stream a rivulet, but the Tawaran does not penetrate far into the country ; its sources are in the main spur of the Kina Balu; the east branch rising between the second and third sub-spur, on the west side of the main spur; the southern branch appears very small. On both occasions I passed the Tawaran; it was of a dirty yellow colour, being filled with the detritus of the neighbouring hills. Land slips are very common, which afford a considerable amount of matter for the torrents to carry seawards. The Tawaran is subject to very sudden inundations, the waters occasionally reaching the houses at the village of Bungol, though fifty feet above the stream. There is no foundation for

Dalrymple's story, which has been often repeated, of the TaMraran rising in the lake ; it evidently springs from the main spur of Kina Balu.

The Abai is a salt-water creek, but preserving more the appearance of a river; much of both banks are mangrove until we approach the houses. Its depth varies—on the bar it is but one

fathom, while inside it deepens to four, and has a channel to the villages of about two fathoms. It is a favourite anchorage for native prahus, being admirably adapted for them. Two small rivulets join the Abai; the Gadding, and the Paka Paka, both inhabited by the Ida'an.

The Tampasuk is essentially a fresh-water river, very similar to the Tawaran, of no import¬ ance to European ships, except that in wet seasons its waters run unmixed half a mile out to sea. It differs from the Tawaran, in having occasionally immense granite boulders in the stream; while the latter drains only a sandstone country; but, like the Tawaran, it divides into two branches ; the eastern one flows from the northern portion of Kina Balu. We could observe its direction for above ten miles, as it ran through the low land, and its course was east south-east from the junc¬ tion. The Pengantaran, that drains a portion of the north-west of Kina Balu, bringing down immense quantities of blocks of serpentine, is the only other stream worth noticing. The natives seldom make use of the Tampasuk beyond the spot where the river divides, though above it rafts are occasionally used; but it evidently is not a general practice, as the river is filled with fish traps, which require the stream to be dammed across with loose stone walls.

/

y f



22

The hills do not press closely to the river's banks ; if they do so on one side, the other is

certain to have a strip of low land, along which the path is carried; in fact, from the sea to

Koung village there is but one steep hill to cross. Sometimes there are small plains, that skirt the banks, at others gently sloping fields. The steep hills commence a few miles below Koung, on the left bank, and continue, with few exceptions, to the base of Kina Balu. The village of

Labang Labang, on a spur of Saduk Saduk, has an easy slope from Koung, while towards the

great mountain it is very steep. Near Labang Labang the river divides and assumes different

names; the principal branch is called the Kalupis, the other the Dahombang, or Hobang, and this receives the Kini Taki and the Pinokok. Between the Hobang and the Pinokok streams is a sort of table-land, about a couple of miles across, by perhaps four in length; it is not absolutely flat, but the ground swells very gently. The Kalupis has its source at the very summit of the

hill, and wc could trace its course from the time it was but an inch deep, till, collecting all the

drainage of the top, it clashed past our resting-place (at 9,000 feet) a fair-sized mountain torrent. About 1,000 feet below, at the head of the Kalupis valley, it throws itself over the rocks, forming a fine cascade of perhaps 1,500 feet in height.

I may notice that off the coast between Gaya Bay and the western point of Maluda Bay there is often a very heavy ground swell, and the rollers occasionally are so dangerous as to

prevent vessels attempting to communicate with the shallow rivers. I was once very anxious to visit the Pandasan, but when we arrived off its mouth the rollers looked so very dangerous, that the captain of the steamer decided it would be unsafe for the ship's boats to enter in, and I

scarcely regretted his determination, the ground swell was so great that it was almost impossible to stand on deck.

Having noticed the principal features connected with the physical geography, I will add a few notes on what Mr. Hamilton correctly calls political geography.

The population of these districts consists principally of three classes—the Lanun, the Baju, and the Ida'an or Dusun.

The Lanuns were formerly very numerous, having populous settlements on the Tawaran and the Tampasuk, as well as on the Pandasan and Layer Layer farther west. They originally

V )j>amo from the largo island of Magindanau, which is considered as the most southern island of the Philippine group. They have formed settlements on various points as convenient piratical stations, particularly on the east coast at Tungku and other places.

As I have elsewhere observed, not only did they pirate by sea, but they created an unappeas¬ able feud with the Ida'an by stealing their children. No race in the Archipelago equals the Lanun in courage; the Ida'an therefore considering it useless to make regular attacks, hung about the

villages, and by destroying small parties, forced the Lanuns to leave Tawaran, who then joined their countrymen at Tampasuk. Sir Thomas Cochrane attacked both Pandasan and Tampasuk, which induced the most piratical portion to, retire to the east coast. At present but few remain in Tampasuk; they are not considered to have more than 150 fighting men; they are essentially strangers, and unpopular. They seldom form regular governments, but attach themselves to certain chiefs, who are partial to high-sounding titles, particularly those of sultan and rajah. These chiefs are independent of each other, and unite only for defence, or for an extensive expedi-



23

vr

>

tion. They, however, are gradually leaving these districts. Although Mahomedans, their women

are not shut up; on the contrary, they freely mix with the men, and even join in public delibera¬

tions, and are said to be tolerably good-looking. The men I have seen are better featured than

the Malays or Bajus. Our slight knowledge of the Lanuns partly arises from the jealousy of the

Bornean Government, which used to employ all its influence to prevent their frequenting Labuan

in order to trade. This partly arose from a desire to prevent the development of our colony, and

partly from an absurd idea that they could thus monopolize their trade ; but the Lanuns, though often deterred from visiting our settlement, seldom cared to meet the Bornean nobles.

The Bajus are scattered along the coast, their principal settlements being at Mengkabong and Tampasuk. At Mengkabong they appear numerous, and perhaps could muster 1,000

fighting men; at Tampasuk they estimate their own number at 600; at Pandasan, 400; at Abai,

Sulaman, and Ambong there are a few. Their origin is involved in obscurity; they are evidently

strangers. They self-style themselves Orang Sama, or Sama men. They principally occupy themselves with fishing, manufacturing salt, and with petty trade. Some breed cows, horses, and goats, while a few plant rice, and have small gardens.

They profess the Mahomedan religion, and keep the fast with some strictness ; though, like

the Malays, are probably but little acqaainted with its tenets. The Bajus are not a handsome

race—they have generally pinched-up, small faces, low foreheads, but bright eyes. The men are

short and slight, but very active; the women have a similar appearance to the men, and are

slighter than the Malay. They wear their hair tied in a knot on the fore part of the crown of

the head, which is very unbecoming. The women appeared to have greater liberty than among the Malays, and came and sat near us and conversed. We saw many men that differed totally from the above description, but on inquiry we found they were of mixed breed; one Baju, Lanun,

Malay, and'Chinese; the next, Baju, Sulu, Lunun, and Malay. In fact, many intermarry, which renders it difficult to give a particular type for one race. The Bajus of Tampasuk nomi¬

nally acknowledge a Datu as their chief, who receives his authority from Brunei, but they never

pay taxes to the supreme Government, and seldom send even a present. They are individually

very independent, and render no obedience to their chief, unless it suits their own convenience.

They are, therefore, disunited, and unable to make head against the few Lanuns, with whom they have continual qarrels. Every man goes armed, and seldom walks. If he cannot procure a pony, he rides a cow or a buffalo, the latter generally carrying double. Their arms consist of a spear,

shield, and sword. Their houses are similar to those of the Malays, being built on posts, some¬

times in the water, sometimes on the dry land. In Mengkabong, they are all on the water, and

are very poor specimens of leaf-huts. The Tampasuk not affording water accommodation, the

houses are built on shore. The only good one was the Datu's, which consisted of a planked house of two stories; the lower, occupied by the married portion of the family, consisted of one

large room, with broad enclosed verandahs, occupied by the chief, his wife, and his followers, while the upper was reserved for the young unmarried girls and children. Of furniture there is

little—mats, boxes, cooking utensils, and bed places being, the principal. In these countries there

are no public buildings, no offices, jails, or hospitals, or even a fort or stockade ; and the houses

being built of but temporary materials, there are no ancient buildings of any description. The

J'



24

Bajus are very fond of cock-fighting, and in order to indulge in this sport with greater satis¬ faction, carefully rear a very fine breed of fowls, which are famous along the coast. I have seen some of the cocks as large as the Cochin Chinese. It is probable they are descended from those

brought by the early immigrants from China, as they no way resemble the ordinarj- Bornean breed found in every Malay and Dayak village. They fatten readily, and the hens bring up fino broods.

Mixed with the Bajus are a few Borneans; in Gantisan they form the bulk of the village ; in Mengkabong they are not numerous : while in the northern districts there are few, if any. Of

strangers, an occasional Indian, African, or Chinese may be seen, but they are petty traders, who return to Labuan after a short residence.

Mixed with the Bajus are a few Borneons : in Gantisan they form the bulk of the village, in Mengkabong they are not numerous, while in the northern districts there are few, if any. Of strangers, an occasional Indian, African, or Chinese may be seen, but they are petty traders, who return to Labuan after a short residence.

The principal inhabitants of these districts consist of the Ida'an or Dusun, the aboriginal population.* They are essentially the same in appearance as the Dayak, the Kayan, the Murut, and the Bisaya; their houses, dress, and manners are very similar, modified, of course, by circumstances. In the Kabatuan, Mengkabong, Sulaman, and Abai are some tribes of Ida'an, but I have not visited their villages ; I shall, therefore, confine myself to those I observed on the Tawaran and Tampasuk.

On the banks of the Tawaran, where it flows through the plain, are 'many villages of Ida'an, which are often completely hidden by groves of fruit trees. These men have a civilized appearance wearing jackets and trousers. As you advance into the interior, these gradually lessen, clothes being seen only on a few, as at Kiau, near Kina Balu; beyond they are said to use the bark of trees. Some of the tribes in the Tawaran have followed the Malay fashion of living in small houses suitable for a single family; while others occupy the usual long house, with the broad verandah, and separate rooms only for the families. The house in which we lodged, at Ginambur on the Tampasuk, was the best I have ever seen among the aborigines. It was boarded with finely-worked planks ; the doors strong and excellently made, each also having a small opening for the dogs to go in and out; the flooring of bamboos, beaten out, was very neat and free from all dirt, which I have never before noticed in a Dyak house, where the dogs render everything filthy. Tho Ginambur Ida'an are good specimens of the aborigines, they are free from disease, and are clear- skinned ; they have good-tempered countenances. None of the women are good-looking; still

they are not ugly. All the girls and young women wear a piece of cloth to conceal their bosoms: it was upheld by strips of coloured rattans: their petticoats were also longer than usual, and the

young girls had the front of the head shaved, like Chinese girls. I did not notice that any of the men of that village were tatooed, but in our walk we had met parties of men from the interior who were so : a tatooed band, two inches broad, stretched in an arc from each shoulder, meeting on their stomachs, then turning off to their hips, and some of them had a tatooed band extending from the shoulder to the hand. Many of their villages are extensive, as Koung, which is large,.

* Ida'an is the name given them by the Bajus, Dusun by the Borneans.



25

scattered on a grassy plain, with a portion on the hill above. It is a very pretty spot, the green¬ sward stretching on either side of the river's bank, where their buffaloes and cattle graze. This tribe has the appearance of being rich; they possess abundance of cattle, pigs, fowls, rice, and

vegetables, while the river affords them fish. Kiau is also an extensive village, but the houses and the people are very dirty.

None of these Ida'an pay any tribute, though many chiefs on the coast call them their

people; but it is merely nominal, no one daring to oppress them. Each village is a separate government, and almost each house independent. They have no established chiefs, but follow the councils of the old men to whom they are related. They have no regular wars, which would induce them to unite more closely ; their feuds are but petty quarrels, and in but one house did I observe heads, and that was in the village of Tamparuli, in the Tawaran plain. The very fact of

troops of girls working in the fields without male protection would prove the security that exists, though every male always walks armed. We had no opportunity of observing any of their cere¬

monies, and it is very unsafe to trust to the information of interpreters. The aborigines, in general, are so honest that little notice is taken of this good quality;

however, to our surprise, we found that these Ida'an were not to be trusted. We were warned

by the Bajus to take care of our things, but we felt no distrust. However, at Kiau they proved their thievish qualities, which, however, we frightened out of them, as during our second residence we lost nothing there. At the village of Nilu one made an attempt, which we checked.

The Ida'an are essentially agriculturists, and raise rice, sweet potatoes, the kiladi {Arum—an esculent root), yams, Indian corn, sugar-cane, tobacco, and cotton. The sugar-cane is only raised for eating in its natural state, while the cotton is confined to certain districts.

I first saw the natives ploughing in the Tampasuk; their plough is very simple, and is constructed entirely of wood; it serves rather to scratch the land than really to turn it over. The plough was drawn by a buffalo, and its action was the same as if a pointed stick had been

dragged through the land to the depth of about four inches. After ploughing, they use a rough harrow. In the Tawaran they ploughed better, the earth being partially turned over to the depth of about six inches. The Ida'an have divided the land into square fields with narrow banks between them, and each division being as much private property as English land, is considered

very valuable, and the banks are made to keep in the water. Their crops are said to be very plentiful. Simple as this agriculture is, it is superior to anything that exists south of Brunei, and it would be curious if we could investigate the causes that have rendered this small portion of Borneo, between the capital and Maludu Bay, so superior in agriculture to the rest. I think it is obviously a remnant of Chinese civilisation. Pepper is not grown north of Gaya Bay, and is confined to the districts between it and the capital.

The Ida'an use a species of sledge made of bamboos, and drawn by buffaloes, to take their heavy goods to market. The gardens on the Tawaran are well kept, and very neatly fenced in. On the hills the plough is not used, the land being too steep, and there the agriculture presents nothing remarkable, beyond the great care displayed in keeping the crops free from weeds. The tobacco is well attended to, and these districts supply the whole coast, none being imported from abroad. When carefully cured the flavour is considered as good, and the cultivation might be

9



26

easily extended. Of the cotton I can say little, as I did not find that any of the tribes through whose country we passed cultivated it, though they assured me they purchased their supplies from the villages near the lake. The Tuhan and Inserban districts produce it, they said, in consider¬ able quantities, and I observed the women in several places spinning yarn from the cotton. The

Bajus obtain their supplies from a tribe near Maludu Bay. Among the hills the implements of

agriculture consist of simply a parang chopper and a biliong, or native axe, and the ground is therefore no more turned up than what can be effected by a pointed stick; in fact, the steepness of the valley sides is against a very improved rice cultivation, it is better adapted for coffee. Mr. Low, who has much experience, pronounces the soil, a rich orange-coloured loam, to be

superior to that of Ceylon, and Kina Balu being but twenty-five miles from the sea-coast, there are great advantages there. The plains are alluvial and very fertile.

With regard to the amount of population, all estimates would be mere guess work, but it must be considerable, as little old forest remains, except at the summits of lofty hills, the rest

being either under cultivation or lying fallow with brushwood upon it. The tribes on the Tampasuk estimated their own numbers at five thousand fighting-men; the Tawaran tribes were equally numerous, but reducing that estimate, and putting together the various information received, I should bo disposed to place the entire population of these districts at above forty thousand people. This is under rather than over the amount. The five thousand fighting-men who are stated by the Ida'an to live in the Tampasuk are, they say, thus divided :—

The Piasau Ida'an. Ginambur Bungol Koung Kiau

Total

500 1,000 1,000

500 2,000

5,000

It is impossible to verify this statement, but we may test it slightly by the observations made. The Piasau Ida'an, so named from the extensive groves of cocoa-nuts that surround their villages

(piasau, cocoa-nut), are spread over the Tampasuk plain, and I think I am understating, when I say we noticed above fifteen villages, and I should have myself placed their numbers much

higher than five hundred. The Ginambur was a large village, and there was another of the same Ida'an about a mile off among the hills, which I passed through on our return. Bungol is also

stated at a thousand men. Our Malays, who visited it, said that it was very large; while the

extensive village of Tambatuan, Pehgantaran, and Batong, with numerous others among the hills, have to bo included in the Ginambur and Bungol tribes. Koung is placed at five hundred, which

is not a high estimate, there being about three hundred families in the village. Kiau is stated to

contain two thousand fighting men ; in this number are included the village of Pinokok (small), of Labang Labang (large), of Sayap, which we did not see. I should be inclined to reduce the

Kiaus by five hundred men, though we understood them to say that their tribe was numerous

beyond the north-western spur, in the neighbourhood of Sayap. I think we shall not be over¬

estimating the population by placing it at four thousand fighting Ida'an, or sixteen thousand

inhabitants. Rejecting the women and children, both male and female, and the aged, one in four



27

may be taken as the combatants. There were many villages on the eastern branch, some of

Piasaus, others probably of Bungol. The great extent of country cleared shows the population to be comparatively numerous. I may make this observation, the result of many years' experience, that I have seldom found the statements of the natives with regard to population above the truth. In Sarawak and the neighbouring rivers, where we had better means of ascertaining the correct¬ ness of the accounts rendered, I have always found it necessary to add a third to the numbers stated.

The Tawaran, perhaps, contains a population nearly equal to that of the Tampasuk. The villages between the mouth and Bawang are numerous, but much concealed by groves of fruit-trees.

Tamparuli was an extensive village, and Bawang of fair size. The Nilau tribe was scattered over the sides of the hills. Kalawat was a large village, with perhaps eighty families. Bungol contains, perhaps, over one hundred and fifty families. The Tagoh, Bafigow, and other villages, were observed on sub-spurs; and beyond Bungol the tribes must be numerous, if we may judge from the extensive fires made by them to clear their plantations. On the right-hand branch are also

many villages, but we had no opportunity of examining them. By native accounts, the Tawaran district is more populous than the Tampasuk.

Of Anaman I know nothing, of Kabatuan I saw little beyond the Malay town : but I was

informed that the Ida'an were numerous in the interior of this river, as well as on the hills

that surround Mengkabong. I have placed them at two thousand, which is not a high estimate.

Mengkabong contains also an extensive Baju population, and in estimating them at six

thousand it is, I believe, much below the number. The villages are numerous, and the chief town large. It is possible that there are not more than a thousand fighting-men, but the Bajus are holders of slaves, and there are also many strangers settled among them.

Sulaman is placed at a thousand, which includes both Baju and Ida'an, and may be a little over the mark, for it I have nothing but vague native testimony.

Abai contains about thirty houses, perhaps not above two hundred people, while on the hills are a few small villages of Ida'an. I have put them at one hundred and twenty-five fighting- men, or five hundred in all.

Tampasuk contains about one hundred and fifty Lanun men, or seven hundred and fifty population. Bajus, five hundred, or two thousand five hundred people. I have multiplied the Lanun and Baju fighting-men by five, as they have many slaves, both male and female.

Gaya Bay contains about three hundred people. The population of these districts may therefore be entered as follows :—

300 Malays and others. 1,000 Ida'an.

Gaya Bay Kabatuan Mengkabong..

Tawaran Sulaman Abai

» Tampasuk

6,000 Bajus and others. 1,000 Ida'an.

10,000 Ida'an. 1,000 Ida'an and Bajus. 200 Bajus. 500 Ida'an.

2,500 Bajus. 750 Lanuns.

16,000 Ida'an.

Total 45,250



28

The only figures in the above which I think may possibly be overstated, are the Bajus of Tampasuk. We may fairly reckon the population of the .districts between Gaya Bay and Tam¬ pasuk at forty-five thousand, being quite aware, at the same time, that it is founded on very loose data; but it may serve as a guide to future inquirers.

There are but trifling manufactures carried on. The Bajus are much occupied in preparing salt for the inland tribes. The only other manufacture that is worth noticing is that of cloths from native cotton, and the most esteemed are those of the Lanuns. The cloth is generally black, with a few white lines runnings through it, forming a check. It is strong and more enduring than any other I have seen, and fetches a high price—varying from £1 5s. to £2 10s. for a piece sufficient for a single petticoat. They are, however, deteriorating since the introduction of cheap English yarn, which is superseding the carefully-spun native. No minerals have as yet been discovered in these districts beyond the coal in Gaya Island, though tin has been found to the north of Kina Balu, near one of the streams flowing into Maludu Bay.

There is but little trade carried on : the only articles of export are tobacco, rice, a little wax, cattle, and horses, or rather ponies ; the imports consist of cloths, iron, gongs, and earthenware, with occasionally a valuable jar. Little beyond tobacco is brought from the interior, as every thing is carried on men's shoulders, none of their paths being as yet suited for loaded beasts.

It is a drawback to this country having no navigable rivers, nor on the hills have they good paths. The latter are easily made, the country presenting no natural difficulties, while in the plains very fair roads already exist, fit for their sledges. The tribes in the interior are at present far beyond any commerce ; in fact, the people near the lake have never been visited by the coast popula¬ tion, and trust to exchanging with the other Ida'an. But as the taste for cloth is evidently on the increase, it is possible the trade may improve. Englishmen travelling in that country do great good by spreading a taste for European manufactures.

With respect to the languages spoken, I will at present make but few remarks. The Lanun and Baju are entirely different from the language of the Ida'an. I have made several vocabu- lories and many inquiries. At Kiau we collected above 400 words; at Blimbing on the Lim- bang, 300; and whilst in Maludu Bay, seven years ago, I likewise made a short vocabulary. These three agree so far that I may say that the Ida'an and Bisaya have two out of three words in common; and, on further inquiry, I think that the remaining one-third will gradually dwindle away, as at present many of the words in my Bisaya vocabulary are Malay, for which they have their native word. The result of my inquiries is that all the Ida'an speak the same language with slight local differences. We found all the tribes on the Tampasuk and Tawaran spoke fluently to each other, and one of our interpreters, who had never before visited these countries, but had been accustomed to the aborigines to the south, conversed freely with them. The Bisayas live on the rivers in the neighbourhood of the capital, and their language differs but little from that of the Ida'an.

The Ida'an contains but few Malay words, these generally referring to imported articles and domestic animals. Some are similar to those of the Land Dayaks of Sarawak.

I will add a few remarks on the geology of these districts, premising them, however, by the observation that I am ignorant of the science. Wherever the rocks protruded through the hills



29

we noticed they were decomposing sandstone, and this character continued until we reached the

great mountain. Occasionally, as in Gaya Island, the rocks were of a harder texture; and here

a Mr. Molley is said to have been shown a vein of coal. In the districts to the west and south of

the Tampasuk, we noticed no signs of primitive rock; while in the Tampasuk huge boulders of granite are met with a little above Butong, while the debris extends as far as the junction ; but

the rocks of the hills are sandstone, and this character continues to the base of the mountain. At

Koung, the rocks dipped to the south-west by south, at an angle of 45°. On the Marei Parei

spur, we could trace the sandstone to the height of about 4,000 feet, the dip about 80° to the

south-west; greenstone immediately after protruded, and appeared to form the chief rock. On

the Marei Parei spur, the compass was so affected by the peroxide of iron which formed a sort of

coating to the rocks, that it would not act. The main spur consists at first of sandstone ; then of

shale, almost as hard as stone ; and of various rocks which I could not recognise; then of decom¬

posing granite, above which commences the massive outline of the summit. We found in our

collection a piece of limestone that was broken off somewhere near the base of the mountain in the

Kalupis valley. The country presents the appearance of having been originally of sedimentary rocks, through

which the granite has forced its way, upheaving the sandstone to an angle of 80°.

With regard to the climate, I made a few notes. The plain and low hills are much the

same as the rest of Borneo or other tropical countries, but in the neighbourhood of Kina Balu it

is of course different. We found at the village of Kiau that the thermometer never marked

above 77° during the day, and varied from 66° to 69° during the nights. The mean of all the

observations gave a shade below 68°. The Marei Parei spur offered a fine position for a sanita¬

rium, at any height between 4,000 feet and 5,000 feet. Our tent was pitched at about 4,700

feet, and we found that the thermometer marked 75° (mean) in the midday shade, 56° at 6 a.m., and 63° (mean) at 6 p.m. This would be a delightful climate in a well-built house. The cave at

9,000 feet was very cold—at 2 p.m. 52° mean ; and during the three nights I slept there on my first expedition it was 40° 33' (mean), ranging between 36° 5' and 43°. In my last expedition, in the cave, the thermometer marked: 6-30 a.m., 43°; 9'15 A.M., 48°; 3-30 p.m., 51-250°; 6 p.m., 45-750. Night, registering thermometer : 41-250° and 41°. On the summit, during mist

and rain, it marked 52° ; while exposed to a strong wind and a storm of sleet and hail, it fell

to 43°. On a fine day, however, it marked 62° in the shade, there being much refraction

from the rocks. I think it most probable that water would freeze on the summit during a similar storm

of hail and sleet to which we were exposed, were it to occur during the night-time, as at two p.m.

the thermometer fell to 43°, though held in the hand; and at the cave it fell to 36*5° during a very cold night, though partly protected by the tent, and when I went out, I found a sort of

hoar-frost on the rocks and leaves. I Avill add a few remarks on that great indentation of the land to the north of Kina Balu

called Maludu Bay, but more correctly Marudu. Steering from the westward, there are two channels by which the northern point of Borneo may be rounded; they are to the north and south of the little island of Kalampunuan. A sweeping current often renders the latter dangerous, as it

h



30

would drive a vessel on a reef of rocks that runs off the island. Just before the extreme point is reached there is a small river or creek of Luru, which is also known by the name of Simpang Mengayu, or the Cruising Creek, the Sampan Mangy of the Admiralty charts. Round the point there is another, named Karatang, and both are well known to the natives as the spots where the

Balignini and Lanun pirates lurked to catch the trading prahus which passed that way. An incident occurred to a Bornean acquaintance named Nakodah Bakir, who had accom¬

panied me on my visit to the Baram River. He had found, from experience, the inutility of

arming his prahus with brass swivels of native manufacture; as, though they carry far, they seldom hit anything; so he changed his plan, and armed his men with English muskets. Early in the spring of 1851 he was on a trading voyage to Maludu Bay, and having secured a good cargo, was returning to the capital. As he rounded the northern point five Lanun boats dashed out of Luru and pulled towards him, firing their brass swivels, whose balls passed harmlessly through his rigging. He kept his thirty men quiet till the first pirate boat was within fifty yards, when his crew jumped up and fired a volley of musketry into it. This novel reception so astonished the pirates that they gave up the pursuit.

Maludu Bay extends nearly thirty miles inland. The western shore, near the point, is rather flat, but soon rises into a succession of low hills, and as you penetrate deeper into the bay they swell to the proportion of mountains on both shores, and Kina Balu and its attendant ranges form a fine background to the end of the bay, which for nearly four miles from the shore shallows from about two fathoms to scarely sufficient water to float a boat. By keeping the channel, how -

ever, the principal river may be reached. The land is quite swampy on both banks, mangrove jungle reaching to within a mile of the town, then nipa palms, mixed with a few forest trees; in

fact, the whole of the head of the bay appears gradualty filling up; the land obviously encroaching on the sea, the nipa palm gaining on the mangrove, which is spreading far out in the salt-water on the flat muddy bottom. The rush of the current from these rivers is sometimes so great that we have found the whole head of the bay for five miles completely fresh, and the amount of earth held in suspension renders it of a white appearance. The houses are built on a narrow creek on the right-hand bank of the river ; near the country is flat, but the mountains soon skirt the plains. The population of the bay is sufficient to render it a valuable commercial settlement for native traders, if security for life and property could be established, and if the

monoplies of the chiefs could be destroyed. To show the insecurity, I may mention that in 1859 the Sultan of Brunei sent a trading prahu there with a valuable cargo. On the return voyage, just as they were leaving the mouth of the river Panchur, the vessel commenced leaking, and they had to land a part of the cargo. The supercargo returned to the town for assistance, and during his absence a large party of men came into the river, drove away the crew, and carried of all the

goods. Thoy were not regular pirates, but a band of Sulus, who could not resist the temptation to plunder.

The monopolies of the chiefs, however, prevent any intercourse with the producing classes, and thus prevent the possibility of a large increase of trade.

I made many inquiries as to the amount of population which dwells in the districts bordering on this deep bay. I obtained from Sherif Hasan, the son of Sherif Usman, who formerly ruled



T

>

200 fa milies of Ida'an. 200 33 150 )> 33 50 » 3»

300 3* 33 100 » 33 250 3) 33

50 3J 33

60 33 33 500 33 300 33 J>

1,500 i) 33

3,660 families. 1,220 families not paying revenue

4,880 families.

31

these districts with a strong hand, a list of the number of Ida'an families who paid tribute to his

father. I then inquired of the chief Datu Budrudin, of Sherifs Musahor, Abdullah, and Houssein,

and of a number of traders, and their accounts do not greatly vary. Sherif Usman received tribute from the following districts :—

Udat Milau Lotong Anduan Metunggoug Bira'an Tigaman Taminusan Bintasan Bingknngan Panchur Bungun Tandek

Add a third

Total

At six to a family, this would give nearly 30,000 people.

Comparing this statement with those given by the assembled chiefs, I find they slightly differ.

They reckoned the population at 36,000 people; and I account for it, first, by Sherif Hasan not

having given the population of Bintasan ; and, secondly, by his only mentioning the number of

families on the Bungan who paid tribute to his father, there being above a thousand families who

did not.

They all represented the district of Bengkoka, not included in the above list, as the most

important and populons of all; it is on the eastern coast of the bay, and the river, though barred

at the entrance, is reputed deep inside. Its population is stated at 16,000 Ida'an. The Malays

and Sulus residing in all these districts are represented as not very numerous; in fact, as under

5,000, of whom 1,500 are at Panchur, 1,500 at Bengkoka, and the rest scattered at the various

other villages. If the above figures represent the numbers, there are about 52,000 Ida'an on the

banks of the rivers flowing into the bay, and about 5,000 strangers. They all, however, explained

that, when they enumerated the Ida'an, they only spoke of those villages which were under the

influence of the people of the coast, and that there were many tribes among the mountains with

whom they had little intercourse.

The productions of these districts consist of rattans, wax, camphor, tortoise-shell, tripang or

sea-slug, and kaya laka, or sweet-scented wood. Large quantities of rice aud tobacco are grown,

and, if encouraged, these cultivations would greatly increase. The only minerals as yet discovered

are coal in the Bengkoka River, and tin in some stream at the foot of the Kina Balu range. I saw specimens of the latter, but no one has ventured to work it yet. The insecurity would

prevent the Chinese succeeding.



32

Starting from the head of Maludu Bay, and skirting the eastern shore, it is found to be

shoal off Mobang Point, and on the next inlet, Teluk Mobang, Sherif Usman endeavoured to

establish a village, but while his people were clearing the forest they were seized with severe

vomitings, many dying; all arising, the Malays confidently believe, from the machinations of the

evil spirits who had been disturbed in their homes. Leaving the points of Taburi and Si Perak, we pass through the Straits formed by the Island of Banguey and the mainland. That island is

inhabited in the interior by Ida'an, but on the shore many Bajus assemble, collecting tortoise-

shell and sea-slug, and they have built many houses near the peak. Commencing from the north-eastern point of Borneo, we first come to a little bay called

Batul Ayak, the only inhabitants of which are Bajus, who entirely reside in their boats. Then

there is a small river called Kina (China) Bangui!; there are but few people residing there, wanderers with no settled dwellings. After that there is Kang Karasan, where there are

probably not more than a couple of hundred Mahomedans, but the Dusuns in the interior are

numerous; my informants knew of villages containing above three hundred families. The river

Paitan is large and deep, and there are above a thousand Islams living here, and the Ida'an in

the interior are represented to be as numerous as the leaves on the trees, and the slopes of the

hills are covered with great forests of camphor-trees. I may observe that boxes made of

camphor-wood prevent any insects meddling with woollen cloths, and are therefore very useful.

Camphor has so powerful an aromatic smell, that it will drive every insect from its neighbourhood.

Passing the stream of Babahar, which is small, and without inhabitants, we arrive at Sugut, to

the north of the commencement of Lubuk Bay, but it has also a small entrance to the south of it.

The Usam population is represented as numerous, while seven thousand families of Ida'an reside in

the interior; in consequence of their great superiority of numbers, their chiefs have great influence in those districts. A few elephants are caught here, but the principal exports are

rattans, wax, and camphor. The north-east coast of Borneo, as far as the entx-ance of the Sugut River, is rather flat, only a few low hills occasionally diversifying the scene, but no sooner do you round the point, and enter Labuk Bay, than it presents a different aspect: the low hills gradually swell into mountains, one range of which is remarkably peaked—as jagged, from one view, as the

edge of a saw. Kina Balu is visible along this coast, and from the eastern side the ascent appears feasible. A vessel steering along the shore finds it difficult, from the numerous shoals, while pretty islets are scattered about in every directions. If the Benggaya be approached in a direct line, the water gradually decreases from three to one and a half fathoms ; but, keeping close to the

front, it deepens to five, seven, and no bottom with a ten-fathom line. The country, as viewed

from the mouth of this river, presents only mangrove jungle, with an occasional glimpse at the

distant mountains : its entrance is very shallow, not deep enough at low tide to float a ship's- cutter. To reach the village of Benggaya, it is necessary to keep to the left-hand branch, avoid-

ing the broad stream which stretches away to the right; but after ten miles the stream divides, and it is necessary to pass by the left-hand branch, and continue for about twenty miles farther

up a most extraordinary winding river before the houses are reached. This out-of-the-way situation is chosen to avoid the attacks of pirates. The banks of this river present a continued succession of mangrove and nipa swamp for many miles, only occasionally varied by dry land and



33

~NJM

V

fine forest trees. The stream winds in a most extraordinary manner, and at one place the reaches had met, and nothing but a fallen tree prevented a saving of two miles of distance. The

inhabitants consist of a few Islams, called men of Buluhgan, doubtless fugitives from the Malay State of that name a couple of hundred miles farther south. There is an overland communication

between Sugat and Benggaya, prepared by the latter in case of being suddenly surprised, as they have no interior to fly to, and consequently no Ida'an population.

The largest river which runs into this bay is the Labuk, which gives its name to the place. It has three entrances—Kalagan, small; Labok, large; Sabi, small. Off its mouth is a place called Lingkabu, famous for its pearl fishery. The productions of this district are principally

camphor, wax, rattans, and pearls, and the interior is reported to be well inhabited by the Ida'an

Next to it there is an insignificant village of Islams on the river Suiigalihut, and is only inhabited

on account of the edible birds' nests found in the interior. Between the eastern point of Labuk Bay and the islands there is a three-fathom channel.

The coast is low, with no marked features until we round the point, and the bluff islands of

Sandakan Bay are visible. Then the land appears to rise gradually into pretty hills, presenting beautiful slopes for cultivation, but as we approach the entrances of the Kina Batangan the land

again becomes low. Sandakan Bay itself is a splendid harbour, with a good supply of fresh

water. It used to be well inhabited, but on one occasion the villages were surprised by the

Balignini pirates, and sacked and burnt by them. The inhabitants who escaped the attack

dispersed among the neighbouring communities, but every year strong parties of the surrounding

people assemble there to collect the value products of the place, which consist of large quantities of white birds' nests, pearls, wax, sea-slug, and the best kind of camphor.

Passing this bay, we arrive at the many mouths of the Kina Bataiigan river; the first, named Balabatang, is said to connect the river with the bay; the second is Trusan Abai, by which the first village may be reached in seven days. The deepest entrance is Tundong BuaKgin, and in certain months, perhaps after the rainy season, it is said there is a channel with three fathoms, but in the dry weather the sand again collects and spoils the passage. It is seldom

used, except by very large trading prahus, as it takes them thirty days to reach the first village. Judging by the time required by the Bornean boats to reach the town of Langusin, on the Baram

river, during the rainy season, we may calculate that with the windings of the river, the first

village must be about a hundred miles from the mouth. The Sulu prahus being heavier built, the Bornean ones used in the Baram trade would move a third faster. The first village on the banks is called Bras Manik. There are numerous hamlets beyond; in fact, the Kina Batangan river is

always spoken of as one of the most populous, and by far the most important on the north-eastern

coast, and it is the one the Datus of Sulu watch with the most jealous attention. As this is the

only country in Borneo where the elephants are numerous, it is the only one where ivory forms an

important article of trade in the eyes of the natives. But the most valuable articles are the

remarkably finejvhite birds' nests and the camphor, which is collected in large quantities in the old forests which clothe the lofty mountains seen in the interior. Wax, sea-slug, very fine

tortoise-shell, and also pearls, are the articles that render this trade so sought after. The tortoise- shell is collected on the many islands with broad sandy beaches that stud this quiet sea. The

i



34

natives generally despise rattans as articles of export, on account of their great bulk, otherwise

they might collect sufficient to load many ships. The principal articles of import into these

countries are grey shirtings, chintzes, red cloth, iron, steel, brass wire, beads, and powder and

muskets. With opium, they say themselves, they are sufficiently supplied by the Lanun pirates, who obtain it from the prahus they capture among the Dutch islands.

Sigama is the next river, and has but a small population of Islams, though there are many

Ida'an in the interior.

Capo Unsang is low, and marked by few characteristic features, but on rounding the point

becomes steadily prettier until we reach the Tungku river, when it presents a beautiful succession

of low hills, with the mountain of Siriki to the left, which is a good mark to discover the pirate haunt of Tungku. All the small rivers on the southern shore of Cape Unsang are barred, not

admitting a ship's barge at low-water—at least, we did not find deeper channels. Tungku

appeared a type of the neighbouring districts ; near the sea it is flat, occasionally varied by a low

hill. I walked several hours though this country, and never before saw more luxuriant crops ;

the rice-stalks were over our heads, the sugar-cane was of enormous girth, and the pepper vines had a most flourishing appearance ; the soil must be of the very finest quality.

The inhabitants of the north-east coast may be divided into Pagan and Mahomedan. The

former are Ida'an, no doubt exactly similar to their countrymen found on the opposite coast; but

at Sugut the natives affirm there is a tribe who have a short tail. I have elsewhere mentioned

that my informant declared ho had felt it; it was four inches long, and quite stiff; and that at

their houses they were provided with seats with holes for this uncomfortable prolongation of the

spine; the poorer people contented themselves with sitting on simple logs of wood, allowing the

tail to hang over. It is quite possible there may have been some instances in a tribe, as I have

heard that this deformity has been known in Europe : and from one or two would soon arise the

story of the tribe with tails. I do not think I have mentioned elsewhere that I have seen Dayaks who carry little mats hanging clown their backs, fastened to their waistcloths, on which they sit:

they always have them there, ready to be used. I at first thought that the story of the men with

tails arose from the method of wearing the waistcloth adopted by some of the tribes : they twist

it round their loins, and have one end hanging clown in front, the other behind, but some so

manage it that tho resemblance to a tail at a little distance is remarkable, particularly when the

men are running fast. The Mahomedan population consists of Sulus, Bajus, and a few Lanuns, together with

slaves, consisting of captives made by the pirates during their cruises among (he various islands

of the Archipelago, and sold at that great slave mart, Sugh. The districts of the north-east

coast are nearly all governed by chiefs from Sulu, or by the descendants of the Arab adventurers

who all assume the title of Sorib, or, more correctly, Sherif. They do their utmost to monopolise the trade, and do not hesitate to cut off any native prahus who may venture on that coast; and

Europeans have avoided all connection with it for many years.



r

t

35

APPENDIX III.

The Character of the Chinese. Abstracted from " The Foreigner in Far

Cathay" (London, 1872). By Sir Walter H. Medhurst, formerly

H.B.M.'s Consul at Shanghae. Showing how far the Chinese are

valuable and desirable emigrants (as colonists, labourers, and settlers)

into Borneo.

It has already been observed that the prevalent impression with regard to the character of

the Chinese people seems to be that they have no notion of honour, honesty, or courage, and that

they are by nature a cruel, merciless race. This estimate is erroneous, and needs to be corrected.

I do not pretend to maintain that the Chinese are free from the vices common to all humanity, and I will even admit that they possess many defects of character from which other peoples, who

have made even less progress than themselves, have been found to be exempt. At the same time

it is hardly fair to judge them by that code which an advanced state of intelligence and civilisa¬

tion has taught us to set up for our own guidance in respect to mental and moral qualities, and

straightway to denounce them as weak or reprobate because they cannot fulfil all the requirements of such a standard. It must be remembered that they are at best but heathen, and that their

advantages have been confined entirely to what the light of nature and the teachings of sages long

since ancient could afford; and, taking this circumstance into consideration, as well as the fact of

their many ages of isolation, instead of there being any ground for special condemnation against

them, there is, I conceive, much cause for marvel that they hold virtue and its kindred charac¬

teristics in such high estimation, and that their standard of what is good and commendable so

nearly approaches that of more privileged and gifted nations.

ft The moral qualities of a people can only be judged of by such salient points in their character

and conduct as come under the observation of those who study them, or are thrown into more or

less intimate association Avith them; and if this criterion be accepted as a just one, there is every reason for concluding that the Chinese are not so prone to evil and so dead to good as they have

been made out to be. Their sense of honour, for example, although not of that nature which is

ready to resent the slightest insult by pugnacious demonstration, is nevertheless very keen, and

the educated classes especially are painfully sensitive to insult or indignity. This has been fully

established by the numerous instances which have occurred, even within the limits of our brief

acquaintance with the people, of public functionaries, both high and low, who have sacrificed

their lives rather than desert their posts or sustain disgrace. Cases have not been wanting more¬

over in mercantile experience, where traders have been prepared to forfeit considerable sums, or

otherwise forego valued interests, rather than belie their word, or permit their own credit or that

of their connections to suffer damage. The Chinese have not, it is true, that delicate perception of what the claims of truth and good faith demand which is so highly esteemed amongst us

Westerners, but they know and prize both characteristics, and practical illustrations thereof are



36

constantly observable in their relations one with another, and with foreigners. Although essen¬

tially a commercial people, for example, they do not appear to take such extraordinary precau¬ tions against fraud in the course of business amongst themselves which are thought necessary with us. Written contracts do pass between man and man, but their use is frequently dispensed with, and they are never so formal in character as ours are. Even in intercourse with foreigners cases constantly happen where the Chinaman's honour is the sole guarantee to the merchant for

the fulfilment of the agreement; and in the common course of foreign business, transactions of all

magnitudes are usually closed by a simple entry in the foreigner's book, to which the Chinaman is supposed to attach his signature, although he cannot read a word of what is inscribed.

Honesty, moreover, is by no means a rare virtue with the Chinese. Witness the magnitude of the pecuniary interests which are at this moment confided by our merchants to compradores, servants, and friendly traders, and although instances have occurred in which this trust has been

betrayed, more especially of late years, since the rapid extension of foreign commerce has induced a laxity in the choice of servants by merchants, yet they can safely be considered as altogether exceptional, and attributable as much to the want of precaution on the one part as to dishonesty on the other. Look again at the security with which merchants have often been able to commit

large sums to native hands in the interior, notwithstanding the tempting facilities given to

embezzlement by distance, inaccessibility, and the known hesitation of the native authorities in

detecting and punishing crime. Against all this there is of course to be quoted the large amount of litigation going on at all the ports between foreigners and Chinese in consequence of the failure

of the latter to fulfil their engagements ; but such suits may also be fairly regarded as exceptional, when considered in relation to the enormous aggregate of the trade carried on between the two

peoples, and still more so when it is remembered that the majority of the litigants on the erring side are petty traders or brokers.

Nowhere, perhaps, is this tendency in the main towards honesty more notable than amongst the personal establishments maintained by foreigners at the ports. Their houses are, as a rule,

plentifully furnished with articles of luxury and vertu, often of considerable value, very much as is the case with well-appointed residences in the West, and, although the occupants never think of

locking up even their jewellery, stray money, &c, yet it is rarely that anything is missed through the fault of the indoor servants. As far as my own experience of some thirty years' residence in the country is to be relied on, I can vouch for never having lost a single article save a small

revolver, and that was restored a few days afterwards on my assembling the servants and appeal¬ ing to their sense of right not to allow the stain of theft to rest on the household. They discovered the thief without difficulty, and he was soon obliged by the rest to leave my service. I am

alluding of course to well-ordered establishments, where care is taken in the selection of servants. There arc residents who do not take the precaution of being particular as to antecedents or

character, and who are consequently perpetually being robbed, and unfortunately the outcry raised by such persons is apt to give a bad name to the entire servant class. I have also heard

complaints made of peculation of liquors, house stores, and such like. But then it is much less the habit in China to keep articles of this kind under lock and key than it is in England, and were similar latitude allowed in the latter country, the result I apprehend, if I may judge from what I



37

y

have seen and heard of housekeepers' troubles at home, might prove quite as deplorable, if not even more so, than it is found to be in China. The pilfering of portions of merchandise in the course of transit between the ships and warehouses on shore has been also instanced as a proof of the dishonest tendencies of the Chinese; but when it is remembered how few and feeble are the

precautions taken against theft in the matter of landing and shipping cargoes in China, as com¬

pared to the strict vigilance and scrutiny exercised under similar circumstances at home, and when moreover it is considered what crazy cargo boats are employed, and how much of the

porterage to and fro is carried on by means of coolies, who proceed unaccompanied through crowded streets and bye-lanes, it becomes rather a matter of surprise that the peculation is not far more extensive than it is.

Another practice to which the Chinese are very prone is that of wrecking, accompanied often

by ill-treatment and even murder of the hapless mariners who fall into their hands. This is a crime which may be ascribed as much to want of enlightenment as to any natural propensity to

dishonesty or cruelty; and the fact that it is not so long since similar atrocities were common

upon our own coasts, and amongst people who at any rate had been better taught, must present some ground of hope that the Chinese, too, may in time become reformed in this particular. It is not generally known, moreover, that it is the custom in China to regard waifs and strays as the

rightful property of the finders, a primitive notion it is true, but one not to be wondered at in a

country where might is still to a great extent right, and where the laws of salvage have yet to be framed. A Chinese would as soon think of asserting his title as of right to a lost property when found by another, as he would of appropriating that person's property as his own. I have seen

large junks and timber rafts, which have broken away from their moorings in the Yangstze River, coolly taken possession of by parties of men and broken up or divided, even although some of the proprietors might themselves be on board, and tho outrage would be quietly put up Avith

by the sufferers as a decree of fate. When the British Consulate at Shanghae was burnt down in 1870, there happened to be in my office about £1,000 worth of enamels, which the curiosity dealers had sent there to be inspected by some naval officers, who were likely to be purchasers, and, remembering these at the last moment when the fire had got the better of the engines, I ran some personal risk in my endeavoursto rescue the articles from the flames. The following morning, when the owners made their appearance, bemoaning their supposed loss, they were as much astonished as my servants were chagrined at my delivering the entire set back without charge or mulct of any kind. And I heard afterwards that a handsome present was sent to the latter in consideration of the aid which they were supposed to have given me in the removal of the enamels out of the burning house. The above instances will show what the native notion is in respect of

salvage, but there is no reason why it should not yield to better teaching and more stringent laws. Much may be effected, too, in the way of prevention and reform on the sea coast, both by foreign men-of-war and the foreign-built cruisers which the Chinese are now building. And it would

always be wise in foreign governments to mark the few instances of kindly treatment of ship¬ wrecked men which do at times occur by liberal rewards to all concerned.

As regards the question of courage, again it must be admitted that the Chinese possess more of the quality than they have hitherto had credit for. In almost every engagement between our

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men and theirs during the time that we were at war with them, instances were observed of really valorous conduct both in individuals and bodies of men, and the opinion was often expressed by those competent to judge, that had their armies and fleets been better found, armed, and officered, our successes might have been somewhat less easily won. This was clearly exemplified by the coolness with which the transport or " coolie corps

" attached to our army in the Pekin campaign was found to go into action in the face of galling fires, as well as by the steadiness and courage evinced by the Chinese troops during the rebel campaign under Colonel Gordon and his staff of

foreign officers. One element of courage—namely, carelessness of life or limb in the pursuit of an object, is

undoubtedly a Chinese characteristic. During the occupations by our troops of Ningpo and Chusan instances repeatedly occurred of Chinese ignoring the challenge of a loaded sentry, and even braving bayonet or bullet for some ridiculously trivial purpose, such as pursuing a long accustomed path, or pilfering some small article hardly worth the trouble of carrying off. I myself was witness to temerity of this kind when stationed as interpreter with a small detachment of troops at Chinhai in 1842. We were perched up in a castellated joss-house on an isolated hill near the coast, about 300 to 400 feet high, and, being in the midst of the enemy, and entirely removed for the time being from all chance of succour, we were compelled to draw a line round the foot of the hill, and to give notice that every one who ventured within the limits should be shot. Notwithstanding this threat and our presumed readiness to put it into execution, fisher¬ men would come daily at low water to pick up shell-fish on the beach, and would coolly persist in

continuing the operation in spite of " thud " after " thud " of the sentries' bullets in the mud along¬ side of them, until at last, for mere humanity's sake, they had to be left alone. A small brig of war that was blockading the mouth of the river close by had the same trouble with the trading and fishing boats. The crews of these deliberately persisted in trying to push in or out, notwith¬ standing the round shot that would crash past their junks and at times sink one or two of their number. I have observed a similar indifference to jieril at Foochow when the river is flooded, and its stream of some thousand yards in width rushes madly through the the ancient and rough but sturdy stone bridge which connects the two suburbs. Fragments of timber rafts and debris of all kinds will then get tangled together so as to block the narrow arches near the centre, and natives will fearlessly leap on to the heaving mass, and, detaching a large piece of timber here or there, will rush with it clasped in their arms down through the surging torrent under the bridge, in the hope of coming up safe at the other side, and being able to make a few coppers by the sale of their booty. I have seen many accomplish the feat successfully, but I was informed that cases of drowning were by no means unusual.

It will be more difficult perhaps to defend the Chinese from the charge of being cruel. That the}r lack that sensitiveness which cannot tolerate the idea of causing unnessary pain, is undoubtedly proved by the inhuman character of their legal penalties, by the barbarous manner in which they treat their prisoners, by the heedlessness with which they will contemplate the infliction of torture or of death in its most revolting forms, and even by the merciless method in which they carry their pigs, fowls, and other live stock to market. Yet it cannot be rightly asserted that the Chinese are naturally of a bloodthirsty disposition. They are of too mild,



39

y

gentle, and forbearing a nature to admit of the charge being strictly applicable. They shrink

with horror from the needless deprival of animal life, a notion perhaps Budhistic in its origin, but

none the less common to all the sects of the people; and the mere sight of a cut finger or broken nose will occasion more bemoaning and fuss than a fractured limb or a ghastly wound would

beget amongst Europeans. On the other hand this native gentleness and timidity disappear when horrors present themselves wholesale before the Chinaman's mind. Although he will rouse the neighbourhood if a little blood is drawn by accident or in a petty quarrel, yet he will munch his rice unconcernedly whilst human victims are undergoing torture or decapitation by the score in the next street.

The truth is that both kindliness and cruelty, gentleness and ferocity, have each its place in the Chinese character, and the sway which either emotion has upon their minds depends very much upon the associations by which they are for the moment surrounded. When in their own

quiet homes, pursuing undisturbed the avocations to which they have been accustomed, there are

no more harmless, well-intentioned, and orderly people. They actually appear to maintain order as if

by common consent, independent of all surveillance or interference on the part of the executive. But let them be brought into contact with bloodshed and rapine, or let them be roused by oppression or fanaticism, and all that is evil in their dispositions will at once assert itself, inciting them to the most fiendish and atrocious acts of which human nature has been found capable. It is not impossible that they owe much of this tendency to the extreme rigour of their code, and to

the cruelty as well as frequency with which they see its penalties carried into effect, as also to the vast amount of want and woe to which their minds become habituated in the ever-recurring series of famines and rebellions that devastate the country. Could their laws, which, although rigorous, are after all well suited to the genius of the people, but be more justly and humanely administered, and could national disaster be rendered less frequent or terrible in its effects by the exercise of a wiser and more vigorous policy on the part of the government, there is every reason to believe that the better tendencies of the people would soon gather strength, and that the more ferocious

part of their nature would in time be tempered into a true and manly courage. But the phases of character in which the Chinese possess the most interest for us Western

peoples are those which so peculiarly fit them for competing in the great labour market of the world. They are good agriculturists, mechanics, labourers, and sailors, and they possess all the

intelligence, delicacy of touch, and unwearying patience which are necessary to render them first- rate machinists and manufacturers. They are, moreover, docile, sober, thrifty, industrious, self-

denying, enduring, and peace-loving to a degree. They are equal to any climate, be it hot-or

frigid; all that is needed is teaching and guiding, combined with capital and enterprise, to convert them into the most efficient workmen to be found on the face of the earth. In support of

these assertions it is only necessary to refer to our experience of them in America, Australia, India, and the Eastern Archipelago. Wherever the tide of Chinese emigration has set in there

they have proved themselves veritable working bees, and made good their footing to the exclusion

of loss quiet, less exacting, less active, or less intelligent artizans and labourers. Even in China

they have already proved their worth by helping to construct, under foreign superintendence, men-of-war of first-class workmanship and formidable proportions ; and their artificers are daily



40

acquiring increased skill in the arsenals now in active work at Tientsin, Shanghae, and Foochow. The marvellous energy of which they are capable as mere labourers is moreover constantly exhibited at the\port of Shanghae, where they have been known to accomplish the disharge of a

ship in less time, as I have been assured, than can be effected by dock-labourers at home, even with all tho appliances of cranes and otherwise which these latter have at disposal.

This remarkable aptitude shown by the Chinese for skilled as well as physical labour 1S

worthy the serious attention of both employers and workmen in these days of strikes in every department of British skill and industry. If the Chinaman can thus compete with our artizans and working men in his native country, notwithstanding the many disadvantages which must attend the exercise there of his intelligence and strength, what will he not be able to accomplish when encouraged and taught to rival a foreign antagonist on his own ground, and at a more moderate rate of remuneration than the latter can afford to demand Should matters go on as

they are now doing in England, the labouring and manufacturing classes must not wonder if they find themselves ere very long displaced and distanced by the hitherto despised, but none the less practical, useful, and labour-loving Chinaman.



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